LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

PRESENTED  BY 

DONALD  BEEKS 


Clbrarg  flf 


JKADE     TESTS/ 

THE  SCIENTIFIC  MEASUREMENT  OF 
TRADE   PROFICIENCY 


BY 


J.   CROSBY  CHAPMAN 

B.  A.  (CANTAB.),  D.Sc.  (LONDON),  PH.D.  (COLUMBIA) 

ASSOCIATE  PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATIONAL  PSYCHOLOGY,  YALE  UNIVERSITY;  MEMBER  OF  TH 

NATIONAL  RESEARCH  COUNCIL,  SUB-COMMITTEE  ON  SELECTION  OF  MEN.  WITH  SPECIAL 

SKILLS;  MEMBER  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL,  ARMY 

TRADE     TEST     DIVISION;     CONSULTANT     TO     THE     U.      S.      DEPARTMENT     OF 

LABOR,    TRADE    INTERVIEW    METHOD    SECTION;    CONSULTING    EXPERT 

TO      WAR      DEPARTMENT,     TESTS     AND     STANDARDS     SECTION. 

WITH  THE  ASSISTANCE   OF 

DAISY   ROGERS   CHAPMAN,  M.  A. 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY  HOLT  AND   COMPANY 
1921 


06 

to 


COPYRIGHT,  1921 

BY 
HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 


TO 

THE  MEMBERS  OF  THE   COMMITTEE   ON   CLASSIFICATION 
OF  PERSONNEL,  ASSOCIATED  WITH  THE  ARMY  TRADE 
TEST  DIVISION,  WHOSE  CO-OPERATIVE  WORK 
DEVELOPED    THE    INSTRUMENT    DE- 
SCRIBED   IN    THIS    BOOK 


PREFACE 

THERE  is  a  universal  demand  for  increased  production;  a 
more  economical  use  of  material  and  man  power  is  the  only 
way  in  which  the  world  can  be  rapidly  restored  to  a  normal 
condition.  It  is  obvious  to  all  that  greater  economy  in  the  use 
and  adaptation  of  material  resources  is  greatly  needed,  but  it 
is  by  no  means  so  clearly  recognized  that  the  human  resources 
of  the  country,  and  indeed  of  the  world,  must  be  equally  hus- 
banded. Depleted  man-power  is  the  sad  aftermath  of  war. 
Although  this  country  has  not  suffered  great  losses  on  the  field 
of  battle,  although  the  number  of  our  skilled  men  has  not  been 
lowered  appreciably,  there  is  no  doubt  that,  as  time  advances, 
reduced  immigration  will  cause  inconvenient  labor  shortage. 
No  industry  can  afford,  at  the  present  juncture,  to  overlook 
any  device  or  method  which  gives  promise  of  more  scientific 
selection,  placement  and  training  of  its  employees. 

At  a  time  when  the  human  resources  of  the  country  were 
taxed  to  the  uttermost,  the  War  Department,  to  meet  the 
problem  of  placement  of  its  skilled  personnel,  undertook  exten- 
sive researches.  One  of  the  important  outgrowths  of  this  ex- 
perimentation was  the  Trade  Test.  This  instrument  was  devised 
and  constructed  to  make  it  possible  for  a  trained  examiner,  un- 
skilled in  any  particular  trade,  to  measure  in  objective  terms  the 
trade  standing  of  any  recruit  claiming  skill  in  any  of  the  several 
hundred  trades  necessary  to  the  work  of  the  army.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  work,  undertaken  by  the  Committee  on  Classifica- 
tion of  Personnel,  was  largely  due  to  the  whole-hearted  coopera- 
tion given  by  a  large  number  of  industrial  plants,  in  the  three 
centers  where  the  Army  Trade  Test  Division  was  established. 


vi  PREFACE 

During  the  war,  for  obvious  reasons,  it  was  impossible  to 
make  public  the  results  of  the  investigation,  and  to  give  back 
to  industry  the  methods  and  the  instruments,  the  development 
of  which  were  so  largely  due  to  the  unstinted  help  of  employers 
and  tradesmen  alike.  Large  industrial  organizations,  trade 
unions,  small  shops  and  private  individuals  made  great  sacri- 
fices, both  of  time  and  of  money,  to  further  the  trade  test  work. 
With  the  closing  of  hostilities  it  is  possible  to  repay,  in  some 
small  measure,  the  debt  of  gratitude  which  the  Committee  on 
Classification  of  Personnel  owes  to  those  who  contributed  so 
generously  to  the  construction  of  the  trade  test  instrument. 

If  the  ideas  contained  in  this  book  serve  to  stimulate  thought 
and  to  suggest  a  method  of  attack  on  some  recurring  problems 
of  industrial  management,  the  function  of  this  book  will  have 
been  fulfilled.  The  trade  test  movement  is  only  in  its  infancy, 
but  the  methods  that  have  been  evolved  will  prove  a  firm 
foundation  upon  which  an  elaborate  superstructure  can  safely 
be  built.  Under  the  normal  conditions  of  peace,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  obtain  the  assist- 
ance of  the  various  industries,  these  foundations  could  not  have 
been  laid.  If  the  principles  of  army  trade  test  construction  are 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  industrial  plant,  many  of  the  prob- 
lems of  selection,  placement  and  training  of  skilled  personnel 
will  be  more  easily  solved. 

The  author  is  indebted  not  only  to  the  large  number  of  em- 
ployers and  tradesmen  who  formed  a  vital  part  of  the  vast 
experiment,  but  to  every  member  of  the  Committee  on  Classi- 
fication of  Personnel  who  was  connected  with  the  Army  Trade 
Test  Division.  This  obligation  is  inadequately  expressed  in  the 
dedication  of  the  book.  The  author  is  no  more  responsible  for 
the  development  of  the  underlying  ideas  than  were  many  of  his 
colleagues.  The  Trade  Test  was  a  cooperative  product;  no  use- 


PREFACE  vii 

ful  purpose  would  be  served  by  assigning  individual  credit  for 
particular  instruments. 

Without  making  any  invidious  distinctions,  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  two  men  who  conceived  and  guided  the  move- 
ment from  its  beginnings.  To  outline  the  history  of  the  work 
of  Dr.  E.  L.  Thorndike  and  Colonel  Walter  Dill  Scott  is  to 
recapitulate  the  development  of  the  application  of  psychology 
to  this  group  of  human  problems.  With  these  names  the  author 
wishes  to  couple  that  of  Dr.  W.  V.  Bingham,  at  whose  sugges- 
tion this  book  was  prepared. 

It  is  my  pleasure  to  express  my  gratitude  for  the  helpful 
suggestions  made  by  Dr.  D.  E.  Rice  who  read  the  manuscript. 

In  the  assembly  of  the  contents  of  this  book  the  author  has 
been  greatly  aided  by  material  furnished  by  the  following:  Mr. 
Roger  Evans,  Mr.  A.  WT.  Kornhauser,  Dr.  C.  R.  Mann,  Mr.  F. 
Meine,  Mr.  D.  G.  Paterson,  Mr.  J.  A.  Randall,  Dr.  E.  S. 
Robinson,  Dr.  B.  Ruml,  Dr.  L.  L.  Thurstone,  Mr.  H.  A.  Toops 
and  Mr.  Max  Watson. 

I  am  under  obligation  to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  United 
States  Army  for  permission  to  reproduce  a  considerable  body  of 
material  prepared  by  the  Army  Trade  Test  Division  of  the 
Committee  on  Classification  of  Personnel. 

In  the  writing  of  this  book,  I  have  been  greatly  helped  by 
my  wife.  Her  intimate  association  with  the  Army -Trade  Test 
Division  from  its  inception,  and  her  close  contact  with  both 
the  experimental  work  in  the  laboratory  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  tests  within  the  industrial  plants  have  made  her 
contribution  such  that  the  only  adequate  method  of  recording 
this  obligation  has  been  the  open  sharing  of  authorship. 

J.  CROSBY  CHAPMAN 

WAR  DEPARTMENT, 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER                         SECTION  I  —  INTRODUCTION  PAOE 

I.  THE  NATURE  or  THE  ARMY  PROBLEM 3 

SECTION  II  —  THE  ORAL  TRADE  TEST 

II.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  or  THE  ORAL  TRADE  TEST 23 

(General  Discussion) 

III.  CONSTRUCTION  OF  AN  ORAL  TRADE  TEST 80 

(Detailed  Procedure) 

IV.  ADMINISTRATION  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  ORAL  TRADE  TEST.  . ..     166 

SECTION  III  — THE  PICTURE  TRADE  TEST 
V.  THE  PICTURE  TRADE  TEST  METHOD 185 

SECTION  IV  —  THE  PERFORMANCE  TRADE  TEST 
VI.  THE  GENERAL  NATURE  OF  THE  PERFORMANCE  TEST  METHOD.     259 
VII.  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  PERFORMANCE  TEST 272 

SECTION  V  — A  WRITTEN  GROUP  TRADE  TEST 
VIII.   THE  WRITTEN  GROUP  TRADE  TEST  METHOD 337 

SECTION  VI  —  THE  PLACE  OF  THE  TRADE  TEST  IN  INDUSTRY 
IX.  THE  ANALOGY  BETWEEN  THE  ARMY  AND  THE   INDUSTRIAL 

EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM 347 

X.  PROBLEM  OF  OCCUPATIONAL  ANALYSIS 367 

XI.  WHAT  THE  TRADE  TEST  Is  NOT 371 

XII.  THE  USE  OF  THE  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  TRADE  TESTS 376 

XIII.  THE  ADAPTATION  OF  TRADE  TEST  METHODS  TO  THE  TRAINING 

OF  EMPLOYEES 386 

XIV.  THE  INSTALLATION  OF  TRADE  TESTS 413 

XV.  SOME  FURTHER  APPLICATIONS  OF  TRADE  TEST  METHODS.  . .    420 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 431 

INDEX 433 


SECTION  I 
INTRODUCTION 


TRADE  TESTS 

CHAPTER  I 
THE  NATURE  OF  THE  ARMY  PROBLEM 

The  Necessity  for  More  Exact  Knowledge  of  the  Trade 
Abilities  of  Workmen 

WHEN  the  scale  of  production,  which  the  necessities  of  the 
world  make  imperative,  is  begun,  industry  will  be  hi  desper- 
ate need  of  more  men,  and  particularly  skilled  men.  Without 
the  strictest  economy  in  the  use  of  human  resources,  the  process 
of  adjustment  may  be  indefinitely  prolonged.  The  decline  in  the 
quantity  of  labor  available  must  eventually  mean  the  intro- 
duction of  a  more  effective  method  of  using  the  knowledge  and 
skill  of  each  man  employed. 

Industry  has  long  been  ^dissatisfied  with  the  manner  in  which 
it  appraises  the  skill  and  knowledge  of  its  human  material. 
Upon  these  more  than  on  any  other  factors  depend  such  ques- 
tions as  the  selection  of  men,  placement  of  men,  transfer  of  men 
and  promotion  of  men.  If  there  is  waste  in  any  of  these 
processes,  the  result  is  bound  to  tell  on  production,  which  under 
present  conditions  is  the  final  gauge  of  success.  To  those  who 
have  been  handling  personnel  it  has  long  been  apparent  that 
what  is  urgently  required  is  more  detailed  information  con- 
cerning the  attainments  of  each  employee  or  prospective  em- 
ployee. Until  devices  have  been  evolved  which  will  secure 

3 


4  TRADE    TESTS 

such  information  we  can  expect  a  continuance  of  the  enormous 
waste  which  the  more  far-seeing  employers  of  to-day  are  at- 
tempting to  minimize.  Industry  has  realized  the  unsatisfactory 
state  of  affairs,  but  it  has  been  content,  in  fact  forced,  to  muddle 
through,  substituting  the  use  of  greater  quantities  of  labor, 
wrongly  selected  and  poorly  placed,  for  a  less  quantity  of  labor, 
scientifically  selected  and  strategically  placed.  Increasing  per- 
sonnel, however  expensive  the  procedure,  is  the  only  possible 
solution,  unless  industry  is  willing  to  make  radical  alterations 
in  the  methods  of  hiring,  assigning,  transferring  and  training 
men.  To  effect  these  alterations  the  most  careful  attention 
will  have  to  be  given  to  the  related  problem  of  training  the 
employee  and  of  measuring  objectively  the  degree  of  his  pro- 
ficiency. Maximum  production  goes  hand  in  hand  with  correct 
placement. 

Strict  economy,  while  necessary  at  the  present  moment,  was 
of  overwhelming  importance  during  the  war,  when  the  country 
was  putting  vast  numbers  of  men  into  the  field.  The  strategic 
use  of  personnel,  at  this  period,  translated  itself  into  losses 
minimized  and  battles  won.  The  exigencies  of  the  personnel 
situation,  within  the  army,  forced  a  crisis  which  called  into 
existence  a  new  method  of  attacking  an  old  problem.  As 
already  pointed  out,  until  the  crisis  arose,  old  methods  and 
old  devices  were  considered  "good  enough."  Blinding  its  eyes 
to  its  own  wasteful  methods,  industry  struggled  on  as  best  it 
could.  In  spite  of  alarming  increases  in  labor  turnover,  the 
pressure  of  production  prevented  serious  scientific  experimenta- 
tion hi  the  field  of  employment  methods.  In  the  handling  of 
personnel  in  the  army  the  wastefulness  and  inefficiency  of  the 
old  devices  for  determining  trade  skill  and  status  caused  such 
enormous  inconvenience  and  delay  that  new  instruments  had 
to  be  devised  to  meet  the  problem.  These  instruments,  forged 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY    PROBLEM          5 

in  the  heat  of  conflict  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  army,  are  now 
available  for  general  service. 

The  Army  Situation  with  Relation  to  Skilled  Personnel 

While  the  ordinary  commercial  industry,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, is  able  to  make  up  for  mistakes  in  the  selection  of  its 
personnel  by  hiring  more  personnel,  the  army  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  war,  and  more  particularly  later,  was  not  in  position  to 
apply  this  easy  but  highly  wasteful  remedy.  Man  power  for 
the  army  was  by  no  means  inexhaustible,  for  industry  was  at 
the  same  time  sorely  pressed  to  maintain  its  production.  It 
was  incumbent  upon  the  army  to  use  the  knowledge  and  skill 
of  each  member  to  the  best  advantage,  for  the  industrial  situa- 
tion was  such  that  the  number  of  skilled  men  the  army  could 
call  upon  was  strictly  limited.  It  was  under  this  urgent  neces- 
sity that  the  army  in  1917  turned  to  industry  to  see  if  any 
methods  in  use  at  that  time  for  determining  the  skill  of  work- 
men would  help  it  to  meet  its  placement  problems. 

To  appreciate  the  difficulties  of  the  situation  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  consider  briefly  how  the  ways  of  handling  personnel  in 
the  army  differed  from  those  found  in  the  ordinary  industrial 
plants.  The  most  outstanding  factors  were  the  largeness  of  the 
enterprise  and  the  speed  with  which  the  whole  must  be  set  in 
operation.  The  army,  within  itself  and  for  its  own  specific 
purposes,  required  men  of  all  degrees  of  skill  in  several  hun- 
dred fairly  definite  occupations.  To  train  for  a  large  number  of 
these  occupations  was  wholly  out  of  the  question.  To  train 
for  any  of  them,  when  skilled  men  were  already  present  in  the 
army,  was  a  course  -involving  great  waste  and  delay.  To  be 
engaged  in  training  men  to  do  general  automobile  repair,  for 
example,  while  first-rate  auto  mechanics  were  learning  to  drill 
and  dig  trenches,  was  clearly  absurd,  and  yet  exactly  this  situa- 


6  TRADE    TESTS 

tion  was  inevitable  unless  there  was  at  hand  some  ready  method 
of  determining  the  trade  ability  of  each  man  entering  or  already 
enrolled  in  the  army. 

The  first  and  most  rapid  method  of  getting  information  with 
regard  to  the  trade  ability  of  each  recruit  was  to  interview  him 
and  make  a  note  or  check  on  the  qualification  card,  later  de- 
scribed, which  listed  the  larger  number  of  important  army 
occupations.  The  number  of  years  during  which  the  particular 
trade  had  been  followed  gave  significant  information  and  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  degree  of  proficiency.  There  were, 
however,  two  factors  which  minimized  greatly  the  reliability 
of  this  trade  qualification  record. 

In  the  first  place  the  bluffer  of  commerce  did  not  seem  to 
change  his  spots  when  he  entered  the  army.  Many  men  who 
in  fact  had  no  significant  trade  experience  claimed  to  be  experts, 
while  others,  without  conscious  deception,  either  overestimated 
or  underestimated  their  ability,  thereby  making  their  records  of 
little  value.  In  the  first  rush  it  was  necessary  to  fill  the  requisi- 
tions for  men  as  they  came  in,  using  at  its  face  value  the  infor- 
mation supplied  by  the  qualification  card.  When  these  men 
were  assigned  to  active  service,  the  inadequacy  of  the  method 
became  patent.  After  having  been  shipped  to  France  on  the 
basis  of  these  records,  men  failed  when  confronted  with  the 
jobs  in  those  trades  in  which  in  the  camps  they  had  claimed 
skill.  On  investigation  of  these  cases  many  men  openly  con- 
fessed that  they  had  made  misstatements  as  to  their  ability, 
and  others  admitted  that  they  had  grossly  overestimated  the 
ability  which  they  possessed.  Herein  lay  one  of  the  great  dif- 
ferences between  conditions  in  the  army  and  those  in  the  indus- 
trial plant.  In  the  latter,  if  a  wrong  assignment  is  made,  the 
preliminary  trial,  usually  coming  immediately  after  the  inter- 
view, reveals  the  fact,  though  often  not  without  a  considerable 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY    PROBLEM  7 

waste  of  time  as  well  as  of  material.  Into  each  camp  there 
came  a  constant  stream  of  men  skilled  in  all  varieties  of  trades. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  the  services  of  men  representing 
not  less  than  four  hundred  distinct  occupations  were  required 
for  the  successful  operation  of  the  army,  it  will  be  seen  how 
impossible  it  was  to  have  in  every  center  a  body  of  men  who 
could,  of  their  own  personal  knowledge,  estimate  trade  profi- 
ciency in  this  great  variety  of  occupations.  It  would  have  re- 
quired an  army  of  experts  who  were  needed  for  purposes  other 
than  that  of  merely  testing  and  examining  an  occasional  recruit 
who  claimed  trade  ability.  In  commercial  industries  the  man 
who  hires  usually  has  some  acquaintance  with  the  trades  which 
he  is  handling;  if  not,  he  is  at  least  able  to  refer  the  applicant 
to  the  foreman  or  to  others  who  have  such  acquaintance.  The 
army,  handicapped  in  this  respect,  demanded  a  method  which 
would  enable,  if  necessary,  a  single  examiner  with  assistants  to 
determine  and  rate  the  trade  ability  in  each  of  the  four  hundred 
trades. 

Another  factor  which  rendered  the  usual  industrial  method 
of  interview  by  a  foreman  or  skilled  man  very  unsatisfactory 
when  used  in  the  army  was  the  variation  in  judgment  between 
different  interviewers  as  to  what  constituted  trade  skill.  One 
examiner  was  willing  to  call  a  man  a  tradesman  if  he  showed 
the  least  knowledge  of  the  trade,  whereas  another  would  refuse 
to  classify  a  man  as  such  unless  he  was  familiar  with  all  branches 
of  the  work.  The  result  was  that  ratings  on  the  qualification 
cards  did  not  have  the  same  meaning  from  camp  to  camp,  and 
even  varied  within  the  same  camp  where  different  interviewers 
examined  for  the  same  trade. 

Let  us  briefly  summarize  the  demands  which  the  army  made 
on  the  methods  devised  for  measuring  trade  ability.  The  more 
important  of  these  are  listed  below: 


8  TRADE    TESTS 

(1)  The  methods  must  be  applicable  to  all  trades. 

(2)  The  methods  must  be  such  that  they  can  be  employed  by 

an  intelligent  examiner  who  has  no  personal  knowledge 
of  the  trade. 

(3)  The  methods  must  yield  a  rating  of  a  man  which  is  in- 

dependent of  the  examiner's  individual  judgment,  in 
other  words,  the  test  must  be  objective  and  not  sub- 
jective. 

(4)  The  methods  must  be  rapid,  and  in  most  cases  must  not 

require  the  use  of  tools  or  apparatus. 

These  were  the  major  requirements.  Several  minor  details 
which  had  to  be  borne  in  mind  by  those  who  attempted  the 
solution  of  the  problem  need  not  be  considered  here. 

It  was  to  meet  these  rather  exacting  requirements  that  the 
so-called  trade  test  was  devised.  The  general  theme  of  the 
whole  book  must  serve  as  the  answer  to  the  question:  "What 
is  a  trade  test?"  It  seems  advisable,  however,  before  proceed- 
ing further,  to  give  a  preliminary  or  partial  definition  of  this 
term.  Essentially,  the  trade  test  is  a  measuring  rod  which  can 
be  used  without  trade  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  examiner, 
for  rating  in  objective,  quantitative  terms  the  degree  of  trade 
ability  possessed  by  the  person  under  examination.  In  many 
scientific  fields  we  are  familiar  with  the  use  of  accurate  measur- 
ing devices.  The  whole  of  physics  depends  on  standard  scales 
for  measuring  mass,  length,  and  time  and  other  quantities  from 
which  these  are  derived.  Thus  the  micrometer  of  the  machinist 
is  merely  a  refined  method  of  testing  length;  the  ammeter  of 
the  electrician  merely  serves  to  measure  the  amount  of  current. 
These  sciences  have  passed  through  the  stage  where  a  mere 
qualitative  judgment  is  sufficient;  we  refuse  to  accept  esti- 
mates based  on  the  eye,  the  touch  and  other  equally  variable 
factors.  If  in  dealing  with  physical  materials  we  demand  accu- 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY   PROBLEM          9 

rate  measurements  to  eliminate  waste,  even  more  in  the  case  of 
human  material  we  require  for  effective  use  all  the  measuring 
rods  which  science  can  devise. 

Objective  versus  Subjective  Ratings 

The  idea  of  measuring  such  a  human  trait  as  trade  ability 
by  an  objective  scale  is  of  such  recent  date  that  it  calls  for  some 
discussion.  We  have  become  so  accustomed  to  such  phrases  as 
excellent  workmen,  good  workmen,  average  workmen,  poor  work- 
men, that  we  are  tempted  to  believe  that  the  terms,  "good," 
"average,"  "poor,"  stand  for  something  quite  definite  in  the 
sense  that  ten  pounds,  six  pounds,  and  four  pounds  stand  for 
definite  amounts  of  weight.  When  we  analyze  the  meaning 
of  these  terms  we  find  that  the  designation  "good,"  used  by 
different  individuals  may  mean  very  different  degrees  of  trade 
ability;  that  is,  the  judgment  is  subjective.  In  opposition  to 
these  subjective  judgments,  which  depend  almost  entirely  upon 
the  opinion  of  the  individual,  we  get  such  measures  as  we  have 
mentioned,  where  the  unit  employed  is  a  pound  or  a  similar 
standardized  unit  upon  which  all  are  agreed.  The  distinction 
between  the  subjective  scale,  which  rates  hi  terms  of  excellent, 
good,  poor,  bad,  and  the  objective  scale,  which  expresses  ability 
in  terms  that  are  constant  in  value  and  universally  understood, 
cannot  be  too  clearly  made.  In  the  case  of  a  perfectly  objective 
scale  all  competent  persons  agree,  while  in  the  case  of  a  perfectly 
subjective  scale,  all  competent  persons  disagree,  save  by  chance. 

From  certain  portions  of  the  account  here  given  it  may  seem 
to  the  nonscientific  reader  that  a  disproportionate  amount  of 
time  and  energy  has  been  spent  in  securing  refinements  of  this 
scientific  measuring-rod.  This,  however,  is  the  price  which 
must  be  paid  for  accurate  results.  If  such  time  and  energy  are 
not  given,  the  product  will  fail  to  stand  up  under  the  strain  to 


10  TRADE    TESTS 

which  it  is  subjected  in  practice.  It  would  have  been  possible 
in  a  very  short  time  to  construct  scales  for  measuring  trade 
ability  which  would  have  worked  fairly  well  and  given  moder- 
ately accurate  results.  Under  many  conditions  of  industry 
nothing  more  than  a  rough  measurement  of  trade  ability  is  neces- 
sary. The  care  which  should  be  given  to  the  construction  of  a 
trade  test  depends  wholly  on  the  decisions  which  are  to  be  made 
therefrom.  In  the  army  the  decisions  made  were  most  impor- 
tant, and  often  involved  the  shipment  of  a  tradesman  to  France. 
Under  these  conditions  an  accurate  measuring  instrument  was 
a  vital  necessity.  In  industry,  where  much  less  important 
decisions  are  made,  where  the  decision  is  distinctly  tentative, 
and  where  an  immediate  try-out  is  often  possible,  it  may  well 
be  that  no  such  refinement  in  measurement  is  desirable.  In 
this  respect,  as  in  many  others  which  will  be  mentioned  later, 
the  army  method  is  not  immediately  applicable  in  its  present 
form  to  use  in  industry.  The  army  methods  were  devised  to 
meet  a  very  specific  situation;  where  conditions  change  as  they 
must  from  industry  to  industry,  and  from  time  to  time,  these 
methods  will  have  to  be  adapted  to  the  particular  situation. 
There  is,  however,  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  experimental 
methods  which  under  very  favorable  conditions  were  given 
such  extensive  try-out  by  the  army  have  yielded  results  and 
devices  which  either  in  their  present  form  or  in  a  slightly  adapted 
form,  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  industry  in  the  immediate 
future.  Long  experience  has  taught  mankind  to  be  extremely 
skeptical  when  simple  devices  are  offered  as  solutions  for  per- 
plexing problems.  Particularly  in  this  true  when  the  purpose 
of  the  device  is  to  measure  some  human  achievement  or  quality. 
While  there  is  in  every  one  some  remnant  of  credulity  upon 
which  the  soothsayer,  the  fortune  teller,  the  character  analyst 
and  the  so-called  "consulting  psychologist"  may  fatten,  there 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY    PROBLEM         11 

have  been  in  industry,  within  recent  years,  so  many  attempts 
at  exploitation  of  this  sort  that  it  is  difficult  at  times  to  get  a 
fair  hearing  even  for  most  rigid  scientific  methods. 

Not  only  must  any  new  idea  meet  the  skepticism  which  has 
been  thus  created,  but  it  must  also  combat  the  reasonably 
cautious  conservatism  of  those  already  engaged  in  practical 
work.  In  attempting  to  present  the  ideas  contained  in  this 
book  no  claim  is  made  that  the  instruments  which  have  been 
devised  can  be  immediately  applied  to  all  phases  of  employment 
work  involving  trade  ability,  but  it  is  claimed  that  devices  have 
been  constructed  and  have  been  successfully  used  for  measuring 
such  ability  under  particular  conditions.  It  is  further  claimed 
that  even  where  the  devices  as  they  now  exist  are  not  directly 
applicable,  the  principles  upon  which  they  are  based  can  be 
used  with  great  profit  in  the  solution  of  a  large  number  of  prob- 
lems in  connection  with  the  process  of  selecting  and  measuring 
skilled  personnel.  The  value  of  a  scientific  instrument  or 
method  must  be  gauged  by  its  performance.  The  task  of  the 
writer  who  undertakes  to  explain  the  instrument  is  merely  one 
of  careful  description.  If  in  his  enthusiasm  he  makes  extrava- 
gant claims,  he  at  once  ceases  to  be  a  scientist  and  degenerates 
into  a  propagandist.  Great  care  will  be  taken  to  avoid  this 
danger;  both  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  method  will  be 
pointed  out,  for  a  clear  recognition  of  its  short-comings  affords 
the  best  assurance  of  its  successful  application. 

The  Meaning  of  Terms 

)  Some  account  of  the  way  in  which  the  words  trade  and  ability 
are  used  will  clarify  our  thought  and  simplify  the  presentation. 
By  trade,  as  used  in  this  book,  we  shall  mean  what  is  more 
commonly  designated  as  "occupation";  thus  within  trade  we 
shall  include  such  diverse  callings  as  those  of  surveyor,  cook, 


12  TRADE    TESTS 

turret  lathe  operator,  statistician,  typist.  This  is  perhaps  at 
variance  with  the  ordinary  usage  of  the  term,  which  emphasizes 
the  opposition  to  a  profession.  The  chief  restriction  on  the 
meaning  of  the  term  "occupation"  as  here  used,  is  that  it  does 
not  include  activities  primarily  concerned  with  the  exchange 
of  goods;  by  occupation  we  mean  rather  a  calling  in  which  it  is 
necessary  to  acquire  facility  in  the  use  of  certain  tools,  instru- 
ments and  machines  in  order  to  produce  certain  physical  results. 
A  further  restriction  on  the  use  of  "occupation"  is  that  this 
acquired  facility  or  skill  is  for  the  most  part  considered  to  be  a 
combination  of  a  complex  set  of  intellectual  and  muscular  co- 
ordinations, such  as  is  commonly  found  in  carpentry,  interior 
wiring,  auto-repairing,  telephone  repair,  etc.,  and  not  to  be 
made  up  of  a  very  narrow  range  of  simple  and  oft-repeated 
coordinations  such  as  are  characteristic  of  the  standardized 
operations  of  much  of  the  highly  specialized  factory  production. 
If  the  reader  will  bear  in  mind  this  inclusive  meaning  of  the 
term  trade,  it  will  save  the  use  of  many  descriptive  terms,  such 
as  "occupational  test"  and  "professional  test,"  which  would 
complicate  the  presentation. 

The  word  "ability"  is  used  to  signify  the  power  which  a 
tradesman  has  of  meeting  the  varied  situations  which  arise 
within  his  occupation.  The  term  "trade  ability,"  therefore, 
signifies  what  is  commonly  meant  by  a  man's  competency  to 
follow  his  trade,  occupation  or  profession.  In  more  scientific 
language  it  refers  to  any  complex  set  of  coordinations  which 
are  acquired  in  a  fairly  definite  order  and  which  characterize  all 
men  skilled  in  a  given  trade,  thereby  segregating  them  as  a 
homogeneous  group.  The  reader  must  not  confuse  this  with 
the  ability  to  answer  certain  questions  or  perform  certain 
tasks,  which  is  measured  only  in  order  to  give  an  indication  of 
true  trade  ability  according  to  the  above  definition. 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY    PROBLEM         13 

Existing  Industrial  Methods  of  Securing  Information 
Concerning  Skill  of  Tradesmen 

It  has  already  been  said  that  any  new  method  is  merely  a 
skilful  combination  of  devices  which  have  been  employed 
before.  When  a  small  subcommittee  of  the  Committee  on 
Classification  of  Personnel  met  in  order  to  discuss  ways  and 
means  of  solving  this  new  problem  which  army  conditions  had 
presented,  the  first  inquiry  that  was  made  was  relative  to  the 
practice  that  then  existed  in  the  large  industrial  plants.  In 
these  plants  the  conditions  more  closely  paralleled  those  of 
the  army;  in  many  cases  there  was  a  central  office  where  all 
matters  of  employment  and  selection  were  handled.  The 
methods  used  in  these  central  offices  were  found  to  be  very- 
diverse.  In  some  cases  the  men  in  charge  of  the  employment 
offices,  who  did  the  interviewing,  were  mere  clerks  who  made 
no  attempt  to  go  back  of  the  statements  of  the  applicants  but 
merely  referred  the  latter  to  the  various  foremen  in  the  plant. 
When  so  referred  to  the  foreman,  three  forms  of  procedure  are 
commonly  followed.  The  first  consists  of  a  few  questions  rela- 
tive to  the  trade.  In  the  second  the  applicant  is  given  some 
simple  job  to  perform  and  his  suitability  is  determined  by  his 
skill  in  doing  the  job.  The  third  method,  which  is  by  far  the 
most  common,  consists  in  trying  out  the  applicant  on  the  actual 
job  which  later  he  is  to  perform,  and  for  employment  in  which 
he  is  being  considered.  Although  these  three  methods  require 
an  expert  tradesman  as  the  examiner,  the  second  procedure, 
that  of  assigning  a  simple  job  to  the  applicant,  was  distinctively 
suggestive.  It  subsequently  developed  into  the  performance 
trade  test  which  will  be  described  later.  These  methods  the 
author,  from  personal  experience,  knows  to  be  both  uneconomi- 
cal for  the  plant  and  unjust  to  the  applicant. 


Htbranj  of 
Robert  3auoon 


14  TRADE    TESTS 

Another  method  which  has  also  been  extensively  used,  es- 
pecially in  the  more  progressive  plants,  has  been  to  have  in 
the  employment  office,  or  to  release  for  certain  hours  of  the 
day  for  work  in  the  employment  office,  skilled  workmen  repre- 
senting the  various  trades  in  which  hiring  takes  place.  It  is  the 
business  of  these  skilled  tradesmen  to  interview  all  applicants 
claiming  trade  ability.  The  interview  covers  the  common 
ground  of  type  of  work  done,  length  of  experience,  places  where 
employed,  etc.  In  many  cases,  in  order  to  verify  the  statements 
of  the  applicant,  specific  trade  questions  are  asked. 

It  may  be  well  to  discuss  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  this 
common  method.  In  the  first  place,  the  men  who  are  doing 
the  interviewing  are  chosen,  usually,  not  because  they  are 
skilled  interviewers,  but  rather  on  account  of  their  skill  in  their 
own  trade.  For  this  reason  their  attitude  toward  the  men  often 
results  in  failure  to  extract  the  knowledge  which  the  applicant 
possesses.  Secondly,  the  questions  asked  by  the  interviewer  are 
frequently  catch  questions  or  else  questions  involving  a  knowl- 
edge of  a  very  detailed  and  perhaps  local  process;  frequently 
found  also  are  questions  which  can  be  answered  by  a  mere  yes 
or  no,  without  signifying  any  trade  ability  on  the  part  of  the 
applicant,  who  merely  guesses.  The  questions  upon  which  the 
"hiring  and  firing"  depends  are  rarely  clearly  formulated,  and 
in  no  cases  are  definite  marks  given  for  definite  answers.  In 
many  cases  which  came  under  the  writer's  notice  the  examiners 
seemed  more  eager  to  show  their  own  superiority  than  to  deter- 
mine the  trade  ability  of  the  applicant.  As  a  crude  method  of 
distinguishing  the  skilled  workman  from  the  bluffer  this  pro- 
cedure, generally  speaking,  fulfills  its  function.  It  was,  how- 
ever, of  no  service  from  the  standpoint  of  the  army  problem. 
Its  greatest  disadvantage  was  the  fact  that  it  required  the 
services  of  skilled  tradesmen  as  interviewers.  The  second  dis- 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY   PROBLEM         15 

advantage  was  that  the  ratings  given,  on  account  of  the  lack  of 
standardization  of  questions  and  answers,  were  essentially  sub- 
jective and  not  objective.  The  first  disadvantage  in  itself  ruled 
out  the  possibility  of  its  use  in  army  camps.  Skilled  workmen 
were  required  for  skilled  work;  they  could  not  possibly  be  spared 
in  such  numbers  as  the  above  method  would  demand,  merely 
to  serve  as  a  selective  or  placement  force. 

Another  method  used,  though  not  so  extensively,  in  employ- 
ment bureaus  and  large  plants  was  to  have,  in  the  main,  trained 
clerical  assistants  in  the  employment  office,  but  the  interviewing 
force,  by  contact  with  foremen,  was  given  facilities  to  discover 
the  nature  of  the  various  occupations  and  the  general  processes 
involved.  In  some  few  cases  the  interviewer  secured  from  the 
foreman  a  certain  number  of  questions  which  might  reasonably 
be  supposed  to  test  trade  ability.  Sometimes  the  interviewer 
knew  enough  about  the  trade  to  tell  whether  the  answer  given 
to  the  question  was  correct  or  not,  but  often  he  merely  judged 
by  the  general  attitude  of  the  applicant  and  his  readiness  to 
reply,  the  extent  to  which  he  was  familiar  with  trade  terms  and 
trade  processes.  Such  questions  as  "Can  you  read  a  mic?" 
and  "Are  you  acquainted  with  a  blue  print?"  "What  make  of 
machines  have  you  worked  on?"  "What  is  a  template?" 
"What  is  a  burring  machine?"  etc.,  may  be  taken  as  ex- 
amples. The  disadvantages  of  this  type  of  question  are  appar- 
ent. In  the  first  place,  the  questions  asked  in  most  cases  do 
not  call  for  any  definite  or  detailed  information.  Any  intelli- 
gent tradesman  who  has  the  least  acquaintance  with  his  trade 
can  satisfactorily  fulfill  the  requirements  of  many  examinations 
of  this  type.  A  machinist's  apprentice  could  answer  the  ques- 
tions in  the  majority  of  cases  quite  as  well  as  the  expert  me- 
chanic. Bluffing  is  at  a  premium,  for  often  the  men  know  that 
the  interviewer  has  no  definite  information  with  regard  to  the 


16  TRADE    TESTS 

trade.  Another  important  defect  from  the  standpoint  of  army 
demands  was  the  lack  of  a  definite  objective  rating  at  the  end 
of  the  examination.  Although  it  was  distinctly  likely  that  this 
method  would  distinguish  the  novice  from  the  skilled  workman, 
the  probability  that  it  would  differentiate  between  the  two- 
year  apprentice,  the  ordinary  journeyman  and  the  skilled  expert 
was  remote.  Even  if  in  some  exceptional  cases  it  did  serve  to 
distinguish  between  these  types,  there  was  no  definite  mark 
which  could  be  given  that  would  mean  the  same  thing  to  all 
persons,  in  all  places,,  and  at  all  times. 

This  general  method,  while  not  suited  immediately  to  the 
army  requirements  because  of  its  vagueness,  possessed  certain 
characteristics  which  were  most  suggestive  to  those  studying 
the  ways  and  means  whereby  certain  phases  of  the  selective 
work  of  the  army  could  be  met.  Its  most  important  feature 
was  the  fact  that  it  did  not  require  skilled  tradesmen  as  inter- 
viewers. As  will  be  seen  later,  this  method  of  examination, 
when  greatly  modified  and  systematized,  developed  into  the 
oral  trade  test. 

The  Adaptation  of  These  Methods 

The  problem  therefore  that  confronted  the  army  was  to 
adapt  these  methods  to  meet  the  requirements  that  have  been 
cited.  The  first  essential  was  that  the  method  be  such  that  it 
should  not  require  a  skilled  tradesman  as  an  examiner,  and  the 
other  equally  important  consideration  was  that  the  examina- 
tion or  interview  should  yield  a  definite  objective  rating. 

During  the  five  years  prior  to  1917,  a  great  deal  of  work  had 
been  done  in  connection  with  a  somewhat  related  educational 
problem.  Just  as  it  is  necessary  for  industry  to  have  rapid  and 
accurate  methods  of  determining  the  skill  and  knowledge  of 
its  workmen,  so  it  is  equally  necessary  for  the  school,  if  it  is 


NATURE    OF    THE    ARMY    PROBLEM         17 

to  be  efficient,  to  have  methods  of  determining  the  skill  and 
knowledge  of  its  pupils.  All  instruction  exists  to  produce 
changes  in  those  taught.  The  success  or  failure  of  this  instruc- 
tion is  measured  by  the  rate  at  which  skill  is  acquired  or  infor- 
mation assimilated.  To  place  and  direct  each  pupil  to  the 
best  advantage  and  to  have  some  check  on  the  instruction  de- 
mands the  construction  of  objective  scales  or  tests  for  school 
subjects.  Such  objective  tests  have  been  worked  out  in  many 
of  the  common  school  branches,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  those  in  writing,  reading,  and  arithmetic.  Less  successful 
attempts  have  been  made  to  measure  manual  dexterity  and 
other  school  factors  more  nearly  related  to  trade  skill.  While 
some  of  these  scales  are  far  from  satisfactory,  the  point  of 
interest  in  connection  with  the  army  problem  is  that  certain 
well-known  methods  have  been  evolved  which  eliminated  the 
subjective  factor  in  the  estimation  of  abilities.  No  longer  do 
we  need  to  use  the  subjective  terms  excellent,  good,  fair,  poor 
with  regard  to  a  specimen  of  writing;  it  is  possible  to  state  that 
its  quality  is  14,  13  or  n  on  an  objective  scale  of  achievement. 
Here  the  qualities  14,  13  or  n  are  not  arbitrary,  but  are  as 
clearly  denned  and  have  as  precise  meanings  as  the  marks  of  a 
ruler.  The  way  in  which  these  methods  were  evolved  from 
physics  and  psychology  and  applied  to  these  particular  problems 
cannot  be  treated  here.  The  field  of  educational  measurements 
made  the  maximum  contribution.  In  fact  the  trade  test  move- 
ment is  virtually  the  story  of  the  refinement  of  the  ordinary 
selective  methods  of  industry  by  application  of  the  statistical 
and  other  devices  which  have  grown  up  largely  within  the  realm 
of  educational  measurements. 

If  we  leave  for  one  moment  the  army  requirements  that  the  test 
be  such  that  it  can  be  administered  by  a  nontradesman,  there 
are  two  fundamental  criteria  which  a  trade  test  must  satisfy: 


18  TRADE    TESTS 

(1)  It  must  differentiate  between  men  of  varying  trade  abili- 

ties and  know" edge. 

(2)  Its  ratings  must  be  objective. 

No  test  can  be  considered  satisfactory  unless,  in  the  first  place, 
it  distinguishes  the  person  with  no  specific  trade  experience, 
whom  we  may  call  the  novice,  from  the  apprentice  who  has 
spent  some  little  time  in  his  trade.  It  must  also  distinguish 
the  ordinary  apprentice  or  learner  or  helper  from  the  average 
skilled  workman.  In  addition,  if  the  test  is  to  have  its  maxi- 
mum usefulness,  it  should  also  enable  us  to  differentiate  the 
ordinary  tradesman  from  the  workman  who  is  exceptionally 
skilled  or  has  had  exceptional  experience.  The  ability  which 
a  test  has  to  make  these  distinctions  may  be  called  its  differen- 
tiating power.  Whenever  the  word  "differentiating"  is  used, 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  a  relative  term.  When  we  say 
that  a  trade  test  must  differentiate,  all  that  is  implied  is  that 
it  must  distinguish  between  individuals  who  differ  by  a  certain 
amount  in  trade  ability.  Thus,  for  example,  a  test  may  well 
serve  to  differentiate  between  the  individual  who  has  one  year's 
trade  experience  and  the  individual  who  has  five  years'  trade 
experience,  but  it  may  be  expected  to  fail  to  differentiate  be- 
tween the  individual  who  has  had  eighteen  months  and  another 
who  has  completed  nineteen  months.  We  shall,  therefore,  find 
it  necessary  at  a  later  stage  to  define  with  great  exactness  pre- 
cisely the  groups  between  which  we  expect  the  tests  to  distin- 
guish. Any  method  of  testing  ability  which  will  make  this 
differentiation  between  the  novice,  apprentice,  journeyman  and 
expert  has  the  widest  application  in  the  realms  of  selection  and 
promotion  within  the  industry. 

The  second  requirement,  which  we  shall  refer  to  as  that  of 
objectivity,  is  so  closely  related  to  the  first  that  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  consider  them  separately  chiefly  for  convenience  in 


NATURE  OF  THE  ARMY  PROBLEM    19 

thought.  Unless  a  test  is  objective,  the  rating  which  is  given 
will  vary  from  examiner  to  examiner.  The  ratings  which  are 
made  at  one  tune  and  at  one  place  will  not  correspond  with  the 
ratings  at  another  time  and  place.  Thus  while  the  measuring 
rod  may  be  used  to  divide  men  roughly  into  three  classes  — 
tall,  medium  and  short  —  thereby  fulfilling  the  differentiating 
function,  much  of  the  advantage  of  the  measurement  is  lost 
unless  for  each  individual  or  group  of  individuals  the  specific 
measurements  are  given  and  are  recorded  in  units  or  in  terms 
upon  which  all  are  agreed. 

Outline 

With  this  general  introduction  we  are  in  a  position  to  discuss 
the  various  types  of  trade  test  which  were  employed  in  the 
army.  The  succeeding  chapters  will,  therefore,  deal  in  order 
with 

(1)  Oral  trade  test  methods 

(2)  Picture  trade  test  methods 

(3)  Performance  trade  test  methods 

(4)  Written  trade  test  methods 

An  attempt  will  be  made  to  show  the  gradual  development 
of  technique  in  the  construction  and  use  of  each  of  these  instru- 
ments. The  application  of  trade  test  methods,  within  the  indus- 
trial field,  to  such  problems  of  personnel  as  selecting,  placing, 
transferring  and  promoting  will  be  discussed  in  later  chapters. 


SECTION  II 
THE  ORAL  TRADE  TEST 


CHAPTER    II 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ORAL  TRADE  TEST 

(GENERAL  DISCUSSION) 

Fundamental  Assumption  Underlying  the  Oral  Question 
Method 

THE  oral  question  is  a  time  honored  method  of  testing  ability, 
particularly  when  this  ability  is  of  an  informational  kind. 

If  this  ability  consisted  of  nothing  more  than  the  possession 
of  certain  information  in  regard  to  the  trade,  the  oral  or  written 
question  would  be  the  obvious  method  of  measuring  proficiency. 
But  the  simplest  analysis  of  trade  ability  shows  that  it  consists 
of  two  factors,  which  for  the  purposes  of  emphasis  can  be  sep- 
arated. These  are: 

(1)  Certain  skill  or  technique  in  performing  operations. 

(2)  Certain  knowledge  or  information. 

The  two  are  closely  interrelated;  without  a  considerable 
amount  of  information  with  regard  to  the  trade,  the  perform- 
ance of  many  of  its  operations  is  out  of  the  question;  likewise, 
assuming  the  presence  of  certain  information,  only  the  mini- 
mum of  manual  dexterity  is  required  to  perform  the  operation. 

If  there  is  a  very  close  correlation  between  degree  of  skill 
and  amount  of  information  possessed,  then  an  examination 
which  would  test  the  amount  of  knowledge  of  the  trade,  would 
serve  also  as  an  indication  of  the  degree  of  skill.  If,  however, 
there  is  no  relation  between  information  possessed  and  corre- 

23 


24  TRADE    TESTS 

spending  skill,  then  any  examination  which  tested  merely 
information  would  be  doomed  to  failure,  for  it  would  give  no 
indication  of  the  first  important  factor  in  trade  ability,  namely, 
skill  in  carrying  out  the  various  operations.  Before  oral  ques- 
tions can  be  used  to  test  trade  ability,  this  crucial  problem  must 
be  faced :  To  what  extent  can  total  trade  ability  be  measured 
merely  by  testing  the  information  of  a  workman  with  regard 
to  his  trade,  without  witnessing  his  dexterity  in  trade  opera- 
tions, or  observing  the  products  of  his  work? 

Obviously  the  question  and  answer  method  does  not,  and 
never  can,  measure  trade  skill  directly.  What  then  does  it 
measure?  The  answer  is  patent  —  it  measures  the  information 
which  the  man  has  with  regard  to  certain  elements  of  his  trade. 
Only  in  so  far  as  information  is  the  reflection  of  experience  in 
the  trade,  obtained  at  first  hand,  will  the  question  method  give 
us  any  indication  of  skill. 

At  the  time  when  the  method  of  examination  was  under  dis- 
cussion, there  was  a  most  marked  division  of  opinion  concerning 
this,  the  critical  point,  upon  which  the  whole  procedure  depends. 
Men  of  experience  in  industry  were  divided  into  two  distinct 
camps.  The  first  camp,  which  was  by  far  the  larger,  was  insist- 
ent that  the  manner  in  which  a  man  answered  questions  had  no 
relation  to  his  skill  in  the  trade.  They  cited  dozens  of  concrete 
cases  of  men  who,  they  said,  were  first-rate  workmen,  and  who, 
in  their  opinion,  would  be  unable  to  answer  a  single  question 
with  regard  to  their  trade.  They  instanced  the  predominance  of 
the  exclusively  motor-minded  type  of  tradesman  who  could  do 
the  job  with  his  hands,  but  could  not  talk  about  it  in  words. 
They  remembered  possibly  one  workman  out  of  thousands  they 
had  known,  who  was  completely  tongue-tied.  The  recollection 
of  the  isolated  case  outweighs  the  multitude  of  normal  cases. 
The  ordinary  mind  is  fascinated  and  paralyzed  by  the  magical 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  25 

power  of  the  isolated  case.  To  hold  to  the  truth  of  the  general 
law  and  to  maintain  an  even  temper,  when  extreme  cases  are 
paraded  as  proofs  by  the  skeptical,  require  not  only  the  genius 
of  the  scientist,  but  the  forbearance  of  the  saint.  In  fact,  some 
foremen  would  make  it  appear  that  it  is  almost  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction for  the  workman  to  be  unable  to  answer  any  questions 
with  regard  to  his  trade.  The  workman,  in  their  minds,  is  a 
bundle  of  mechanical  skills  or  habits.  They  feel  that  the  exer- 
cise of  these  skills  or  habits  is  so  automatic  in  a  good  workman 
that  it  is  a  positive  mark  of  his  superiority  to  lack  any  power 
of  describing  in  words  the  elements  of  the  processes.  To  reduce 
their  argument  to  scientific  terms  would  be  to  say  that  there 
is  little  relationship  between  information  of  the  trade,  which 
can  be  expressed  in  words,  and  skill  in  performing  its  processes. 
The  other  group,  which  was  much  in  the  minority,  held  that, 
with  the  ordinary  workman,  all  the  information  which  he  has 
in  regard  to  his  trade  has  been  obtained  through  actual  trade 
experience.  They  claimed  that  if  questions  were  skilfully 
worded,  if  they  used  the  language  of  the  shop,  if  they  concerned 
themselves  with  familiar  processes,  the  larger  percentage  of 
the  workmen  who  could  perform  the  operations  must  be  able 
to  talk  in  trade  terms,  provided,  of  course,  that  the  examiner 
and  the  applicant  speak  the  same  language.  While  this  group 
maintained  the  proposition  of  the  close  correspondence  between 
skill  and  information,  they  still  recognized  that  a  small  per- 
centage of  tradesmen,  of  high  proficiency  and  skill,  might  be 
unable  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  oral  question.  Admitting 
that  this  controversy  can  only  be  settled  by  actual  experiment, 
it  may  be  useful  to  note  a  few  of  the  points  which  were  raised 
at  the  time  of  the  discussion.  It  has  been  said  that  the  informa- 
tion which  the  ordinary  workman  possesses,  with  regard  to  his 
trade,  is  the  outcome  of  his  actual  performance  of  the  processes 


26  TRADE    TESTS 

of  his  trade.  It  is,  so  to  speak,  the  residue  or  the  precipitate  of 
his  experience.  While  it  may  be  true  that  the  workman  occa- 
sionally will  be  unable  to  describe  in  words  processes  in  which 
he  has  taken  part,  it  will  very  rarely  happen  that  he  can  give 
information  with  regard  to  an  operation  he  has  never  performed. 
If  the  majority  of  workmen  had  received  technical  training  in 
their  occupation,  it  is  probable  that  the  statement  would  not 
be  so  true.  Only  the  theorist  thinks  that  the  knowledge  which 
the  ordinary  workman  possesses  is  the  result  of  intellectual 
toil  by  midnight  oil.  Generally  speaking,  for  ninety-nine  per 
cent  of  workmen,  what  information  they  possess  has  come  from 
the  sweat  of  their  own  brow  and  the  labor  of  their  own  hands. 
Their  school  is  that  of  experience,  not  of  books.  If  this  posi- 
tion is  accepted,  it  alters  the  attitude  towards  the  effectiveness 
of  the  oral  question  method.  The  oral  question  will,  under 
these  circumstances,  give  us  a  measure  of  the  skill  of  the  work- 
man, not  directly,  but  indirectly.  Information  being  merely 
the  result  of  experience  in  the  trade  operation,  any  series  of 
well-chosen  questions  which  test  information  cannot,  at  the  same 
time,  fail  to  measure  experience  or  effectiveness.  An  illustra- 
tion will  perhaps  make  this  point  clear.  Suppose  this  question 
"Of  what  material  is  the  float  in  the  carburetor  made?"  is 
put  to  an  automobile  mechanic.  All  that  is  called  for  is  cer- 
tain facts,  but  granted  that  the  majority  of  workmen  acquire 
these  facts  from  experience,  a  correct  answer  signifies  that  the 
workman  has  had  experience  with  the  operation;  otherwise,  he 
would  not  have  the  necessary  factual  information.  Assump- 
tions of  this  kind  are  constantly  made  in  everyday  life.  If  at  a 
convention  we  hear  any  man,  save  a  college  professor,  read  a 
paper  on  some  employment  problem  which  contains  what  we 
know  to  be  correct  information,  and  if,  in  addition,  he  answers 
intelligently  all  the  questions  we  put  to  him,  we  at  once  assume 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  27 

that  he  has  had  experience  in  employment  work.  If  we  do  not 
make  this  assumption  we  are  at  a  loss  to  know  the  reason  for 
his  knowledge.  In  this  case  there  is,  of  course,  a  possibility  that 
the  information  is  theoretical,  because  the  employment  manager 
is  increasingly  consulting  others  and  reading  in  connection  with 
his  subject,  but  we  may  safely  suppose  that  such  is  not  the 
case  with  the  large  majority  of  workmen. 

It  was  realized,  however,  that  no  amount  of  dogmatism  or 
argument  could  settle  this  question.  The  decision  depends  on 
evidence  alone.  If  oral  questions  do,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  differ- 
entiate between  various  degrees  of  trade  ability,  then  the  assump- 
tion of  a  close  correspondence  between  skill  and  information  is 
correct;  if  they  fail  to  differentiate,  such  an  assumption  is  un- 
tenable. The  question  is  one  which  can  be  solved  by  trial  or 
experiment,  and  by  this  method  alone.  .  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  scientific  method  and  the  popular  method  lies  in  this 
very  point.  The  scientific  method  necessitates  caution,  sus- 
pended judgment  and  prolonged  experimentation  before  it  gives 
a  decision.  The  popular  method  uses  heated  arguments  and 
dogmatic  statements  in  place  of  cool  experimentation  and 
guarded  generalizations.  It  rushes  in  where  angels  fear  to 
tread,  with  confusion  as.  the  outcome.  The  reader  will  bear 
in  mind  that  the  great  amount  of  the  detail  which  is  about  to 
be  described  is  the  price  which  has  to  be  paid  for  following  the 
long  but  clearly  marked  scientific  high  road. 

Before  we  can  show  concretely  the  method  of  attacking  this 
problem  we  must  first  consider  the  type  of  question  which  can 
be  employed  to  satisfy  the  requirements  laid  down. 

The  Nature  of  the  Question 

There  is  no  limit  to  the  scope  of  a  question.  It  can  demand 
for  its  answer  the  widest  information  on  the  one  hand,  or  it 


28  TRADE    TESTS 

may  merely  concern  itself  with  the  most  specific  detail.  Ex- 
amples of  questions  of  both  of  these  types  may  be  given.  An 
extreme  of  the  first  type  would  be:  "Suppose  a  car  was  left  in 
a  garage  for  repair,  and  you  were  not  told  what  was  wrong. 
How  would  you  proceed?"  An  illustration  at  the  other  extreme 
would  be:  "What  joint  is  there  between  the  differential  and  the 
transmission?"  A  complete  answer  to  the  first  question  would 
involve  a  lengthy  description  of  the  majority  of  the  processes 
in  automobile  repair.  The  answer,  to  be  tolerably  full,  might 
well  consume  several  hours.  No  two  mechanics  would  answer 
the  question  in  the  same  manner.  Again,  consider  how  such 
an  answer  could  be  rated.  Suppose  ten  points  were  to  be  as- 
signed to  this  question.  What  would  constitute  a  score  of  10, 
8,  6,  4,  o?  Contrast  this  first  question  with  the  second  question. 
To  the  latter  one  word,  and  one  word  only  is  the  correct  reply 
"Universal."  The  question  calls  fora  most  specific  answer,  no 
two  examiners  can  disagree  on  the  rating.  If  instructions  call 
for  a  credit  of  two  points  for  the  answer  "universal,"  and  zero 
for  all  other  answers,  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  concerning  the 
credit  to  be  given. 

Take  again  two  examples,  neither  of  which  is  so  extreme  as 
those  just  given;  both  will  be  taken  from  the  field  of  the  general 
machinist.  The  first  question  that  we  will  consider  is,  "What 
kind  of  work  can  be  done  on  a  universal  milling  machine?" 
Here  the  answer  called  for  is  much  more  definite  than  the  first 
example  cited.  But  there  is  still  room  for  a  considerable  varia- 
tion in  answers  given  by  two  highly  skilled  machinists.  No  two 
examiners,  even  if  both  were  skilled  examiners  and  skilled  trades- 
men, would  agree  on  the  credit  to  be  assigned  to  the  same  answer. 
In  addition,  the  workman  would  never  know  when  he  had  given 
a  complete  reply.  The  question  of  the  other  type  which  we 
will  consider  is:  "When  starting  a  hole  on  a  drill  press,  if  the 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  29 

drill  runs  out  of  center  what  do  you  commonly  do?"  Here  the 
answer  cannot  be  as  definite  as  in  the  case  of  reply  to  the  ques- 
tion which  calls  for  the  joint  between  the  differential  and  trans- 
mission but  the  limits  of  the  possible  correct  answer  are  clearly 
defined.  The  only  suitable  one  would  be  somewhat  as  follows: 
"Use  a  gauge."  "Try  it  with  a  chisel."  "Draw  over  with  a 
gauge."  "Draw  over  with  a  chisel."  If  it  was  agreed  that 
provided  the  workman  mentioned  "chisel,"  "gauge"  or  "draw 
it  over"  a  credit  of  four  would  be  given  for  the  answer,  the 
marking  could  be  quite  definite.  All  examiners  must  agree 
when  the  directions  are  so  specific.  Note  that  we  do  not  claim 
that  this  is  an  ideal  trade  question;  in  fact,  we  use  it  as  an 
illustration  because  it  lacks  the  precision  of  a  perfect  question. 

The  Multi-answer  versus  Single-answer  Question 

The  contrast  between  these  two  types  of  questions  will  now 
be  clearer.  For  purposes  of  convenience  we  shall  designate 
them  according  to  the  answer  called  for  as  (i)  multi-answer 
questions;  (2)  single-answer  questions.  It  may  be  well  to  con- 
sider the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  two  types  of 
questions  from  the  standpoint  of  their  application  to  the  army 
problem.  The  multi-answer  question  is  by  far  the  more  familiar; 
whenever  the  question  and  answer  method  was  being  employed 
in  industry,  it  was  this  type  which  was  found.  Employment 
offices,  trade  unions,  and  examining  bodies  such  as  Civil  Service 
Commissions  had,  in  a  large  number  of  trades,  series  of  these 
questions  which  were  available  for  any  purposes.  Moreover, 
this  kind  of  a  question  enables  the  examiner  to  discover  whether 
the  workman  understands  the  whole  process;  there  is  no  restric- 
tion as  to  the  ground  covered.  So  much  for  the  advantages  of 
the  multi- answer  question;  its  great  drawbacks  are,  first,  that 
it  requires  for  satisfactory  use  an  examiner  who  has  trade  knowl- 


30  TRADE    TESTS 

edge,  and  second,  that  it  is  absolutely  impossible  to  standardize 
the  answers  to  the  question,  -so  that  examiners  at  different 
places  and  under  different  conditions  would  give  the  same 
rating  for  the  same  answers. 

The  single-answer  question,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not 
necessitate  trade  information  on  the  part  of  the  examiner. 
Where  the  question  is  so  worded  that  there  is  only  one  possible 
reply,  any  examiner  who  can  read  is  capable  of  conducting  the 
examination.  What  is  more,  there  can  be  no  disagreement 
concerning  the  credits  given.  The  disadvantages  of  the  method, 
from  the  standpoint  of  adoption  in  the  army,  were  twofold. 
In  the  first  place,  there  had  been  no  systematic  attempt,  before 
1917,  to  try  out  questions  of  this  type.  There  were  no  sets  of 
questions  available,  constructed  on  these  lines.  In  addition, 
it  appeared  very  doubtful  whether  specific  questions,  which  had 
merely  a  single  answer,  would  fulfill  the  main  function  for  which 
the  tests  were  to  be  given,  namely,  to  differentiate  between  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  trade  ability.  No  method,  however  suitable 
for  nontechnical  examiners,  however  objective  the  results  it 
might  yield,  could  be  employed  unless,  with  a  considerable  degree 
of  precision,  it  separated  workmen  into  classes,  according  to 
their  general  trade  knowledge  and  practical  usefulness. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  at  this  point  the  similarity  be- 
tween the  multi-answer  question  and  the  single-answer  question. 
They  are  not  essentially  different  types  of  questions,  they  merely' 
differ  in  degree.  Whereas  the  multi-answer  question  demands 
for  its  answer  a  large  number  of  elements  or  pieces  of  informa- 
tion, the  single-answer  question  concentrates  on  one  particular 
element  of  information.  For  example,  contrast  the  two  ques- 
tions, "What  do  you  do  when  turning  a  taper  in  steel  on  a 
lathe?"  and  "How  high  would  you  set  the  tool  when  turning 
a  taper  in  steel  on  a  lathe?"  The  first  question  calls  for  a  long 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  31 

answer,  descriptive  of  the  whole  process;  it  would  be  difficult 
to  know  just  when  to  begin  and  when  to  stop  in  the  outline  of 
the  operation.  The  second  question  simply  picks  out  one  of 
the  most  important  elements  in  the  process  and  confines  itself 
to  extracting  information  with  regard  to  this  essential  part 
-of  the  operation.  It  may  reasonably  be  supposed,  if  the 
answer  "At  center"  or  "A  little  above  center"  is  given,  that 
the  workman  in  all  probability  has  a  knowledge  of  the  whole 
operation.  Again  consider  the  two  questions,  "What  is  a  single- 
phase  lighting  transformer?"  and  "What  are  the  names  of  the 
two  windings  in  a  single-phase  lighting  transformer?"  Here 
the  wider  question  gives  no  clear  indication  of  the  kind  of 
answer  required.  Does  it  call  for  an  account  of  the  uses  or  con- 
struction of  the  transformer?  How  detailed  is  the  information 
required?  Is  it  necessary  to  describe  from  the  very  beginning 
the  building  up  of  the  apparatus?  In  contrast  with  this  vague- 
ness is  the  clear-cut  question  which  asks  merely  for  the  names 
of  the  two  windings.  The  assumption  again  is  that  if  these 
names  are  known,  there  is  a  great  probability  that  a  consider- 
able amount  of  further  knowledge  is  present  with  reference  to 
the  properties  and  uses  of  the  instrument.  It  will  be  necessary, 
when  we  consider  the  selection  of  questions,  to  return  to  this 
point  as  to  the  probability  or  likelihood  that  a  single  element  of 
the  process  will  give  an  indication  of  knowledge  or  ignorance, 
on  the  part  of  the  workman,  of  the  whole  process.  It  may  be 
pointed  out,  however,  that  an  assumption  of  this  kind  is  made, 
consciously  or  unconsciously,  in  every  type  of  examination. 
When  to  test  a  workman  the  foreman  gives  him  a  specific  job 
to  do,  other  than  that  for  which  he  is  to  be  employed,  he  is 
assuming  that  success  or  failure  in  the  single  operation  will 
give  some  indication  of  power  in  a  host  of  operations  which 
are  not  involved  in  the  specific  job. 


32  TRADE    TESTS 

To  summarize,  then,  we  may  say  that  the  single-answer  ques- 
tion is  the  most  feasible  oral  method  which  can  be  used  to  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  army  situation.  The  multi-answer 
question,  whatever  its  other  advantages,  does  not  admit  of  being 
handled  and  marked  objectively  by  an  examiner  who  is  not 
skilled  in  the  trade  in  which  he  is  giving  the  test. 

It  cannot  be  too  clearly  recognized  that  up  to  this  point  we 
have  made  no  assumption  that  questions  of  the  single-answer 
type  will  serve  to  differentiate  between  workmen  of  different 
degrees  of  skill.  All  that  we  have  established  is  the  fact  that 
the  single-answer  question  is  a  method  which  fulfills  the  neces- 
sary requirements  of  yielding  an  objective  rating  by  an  unskilled 
examiner.  The  demonstration  of  the  extent  to  which  the  most 
specific  type  of  question  will  differentiate  between  various  levels 
of  ability  will  be  considered  in  full  in  a  succeeding  section. 

It  may  be  well,  however,  to  point  out  at  this  stage  that  the 
two  requirements  of  army  procedure  which  we  have  now  men- 
tioned, namely,  that  the  test  can  be  given  by  a  nonskilled  exam- 
iner, and  that  there  can  be  no  disagreement  in  marking,  are  not 
characteristic  merely  of  tests  used  in  the  army. 

In  a  large  number  of  industries  it  is  very  desirable  to  have 
methods  of  examining  applicants  which  do  not  involve  the 
services  of  a  skilled  trasdesman.  In  many  employment  offices 
the  large  number  of  trades  handled  makes  it  an  utter  impossi- 
bility to  have  individuals  in  the  office  who  are  skilled  in  all  the 
trades  in  which  there  happen  to  be  openings.  It  is  apparent 
that  it  is  a  source  of  great  waste  to  have  skilled  mechanics  in 
an  employment  office  when  a  clerk  could  perform  the  same 
service.  The  proper  post  for  a  skilled  mechanic  is  in  the  shop; 
he  is  not  in  the  strategic  place,  when  he  is  conducting  routine 
interviews.  Even  when  the  employment  office  merely  refers 
applicants  to  'the  foreman  in  the  shop,  there  is  great  waste  of 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  33 

time  and  energy,  unless  some  type  of  trade  examination  can 
be  given  before  the  reference  is  made. 

An  illustration  will  make  this  last  point  clearer.  The  author 
recently  was  in  the  employment  office  of  a  large  plant  where  a 
man  was  being  interviewed  who  claimed  to  be  a  general  lathe 
operator.  He  had  given  information  with  regard  to  his  experi- 
ence, and  the  interviewer  was  satisfied  that  it  was  worth  while 
to  refer  him  to  the  foreman  of  the  department  for  which  he 
was  applying.  Just  after  the  man  had  been  given  the  card  of 
reference  to  the  foreman  and  was  about  to  be  conducted  to  the 
department  in  question,  permission  was  asked  to  give  the  appli- 
cant a  trade  test  which  had  been  constructed  for  lathe  oper- 
ators. The  first  question,  which  was  of  the  very  simplest  order, 
was  answered  correctly.  But  the  following  questions  were  quite 
beyond  his  range  of  knowledge.  After  six  out  of  the  possible 
eighteen  questions  had  been  given,  the  man  admitted  quite 
frankly  that  he  was  not  a  general  lathe  operator.  He  said 
he  had  been  engaged  on  a  lathe  entirely  on  production  work 
of  the  most  routine  kind,  and  that  he  knew  nothing  about  run- 
ning a  lathe  except  in  this  particular  operation.  His  closing 
remarks  were  very  significant:  —  "I  knew  when  I  came  in  that 
I  was  no  lathe  operator,  but  I  guessed  I  would  be  able  to  get 
away  with  it.  You  have  certainly  called  my  bluff."  The  appli- 
cant was  of  course  told  that  he  did  not  qualify,  and  he  went 
away  apparently  quite  satisfied  that  he  had  received  a  very  fair 
deal.  If  there  had  been  no  trade  test  to  apply,  the  man  would 
undoubtedly  have  consumed  the  time  of  a  highly  skilled  work- 
man for  some  little  period  before  the  true  extent  of  his  knowl- 
edge was  discovered.  With  the  use  of  the  simplest  form  of 
trade  test  the  actual  state  of  affairs  was  discovered  by  a  non- 
technical examiner  in  three  minutes. 

Not  only  in  the  employment  office  itself  is  there  great  scope 


34  TRADE    TESTS 

for  the  application  of  these  methods,  but  they  also  will  have  a 
great  field  of  usefulness  when  hiring  has  to  be  done  out  of  town, 
or  away  from,  the  plant.  A  large  number  of  concerns  find  it 
necessary  to  send  highly  skilled  workmen  to  interview  appli- 
cants. Especially  is  this  the  case  when  transportation  is  fur- 
nished. With  a  method  which  obviates  the  necessity  of  using 
a  trained  tradesman  as  examiner,  any  clerk  can  be  sent,  and 
what  is  more,  he  can  handle  any  number  of  trades  in  which  men 
are  to  be  hired. 

ATTEMPTS  TO  MEET  THE  INTERVIEW  PROBLEM,  PRIOR  TO  THE 
INTRODUCTION  OF  THE  SINGLE-ANSWER  QUESTION 

The  significance  of  the  single  answer  question  will  be  more 
fully  understood,  when  the  inadequacy  of  the  previous  methods 
of  interview  are  realized. 

In  describing  the  question  with  a  single- word  answer  we  have 
rather  forestalled  the  conclusions  of  a  long  process  of  experi- 
mentation which  was  gone  through  by  the  army  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  the  standarized  trade  question  test. 

As  soon  as  shipments  and  transfers  of  tradesmen  were  made, 
it  became  apparent  that  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to  rely 
merely  on  the  information  given  by  the  soldier  himself.  As 
has  been  already  said,  men  were  actually  shipped  to  France 
who  admitted  on  their  arrival  that  they  had  merely  bluffed  as 
to  their  trade  knowledge  in  order  to  see  service  abroad.  It 
was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  army  to  act  at  once  in  the 
matter  and  to  provide  the  personnel  officers  in  the  camps  with 
some  method  of  checking  up  the  claims  of  the  men.  To  meet 
this  requirement  series  of  questions  for  a  large  number  of  trades 
were  collected.  These  were  published  under  the  title,  "Aids  for 
Interviewers."  Samples  of  these  questions  in  a  number  of  trades 
are  appended.  The  general  arrangement  of  each  interview  is 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  35 

obvious.  There  are  three  questions  which  it  was  supposed 
would  be  suitable  for  apprentices  in  the  trade,  these  being 
marked  with  letter  "A";  three  intermediate  questions  marked 
with  letter  "J,"  which  might  be  considered  to  test  the  average 
workman,  followed  by  a  series  of  questions  ranging  in  number 
from  three  to  five,  which  were  supposed  to  be  suitable  for  men 
of  exceptional  trade  ability.  The  following  directions  were 
given  to  the  interviewers: 


AIDS    FOR    INTERVIEWERS 

1.  These  AIDS  are  for  use  in  the  preliminary  interview  of  recruits. 

2.  It  is  not  expected  that  these  questions  will  be  used  with  all 
tradesmen,  but  only  when  the  interviewer  is  in  doubt  about  the  pre- 
liminary classification,  and  wishes  to  question  the  recruit  more  closely 
about  his  trade. 

3.  CAUTION.    Do  not  expect  answers  which  correspond  word 
for  word  with  the  answers  printed  in  the  AIDS.    The  answers  are 
primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  examiner.    He  will  often  find  it  neces- 
sary to  supplement  questions  given  with  other  questions  in  order  to 
draw  out  the  information  desired. 

4.  As  an  arbitrary  means  of  classifying  according  to  degree  of 
knowledge  or  skill  of  candidate,  all  questions  have  been  divided  into 
three  groups: 

a.  Questions  designated  by  "A"  are  intended  to  determine  the  knowledge 
of  the  candidate  on  such  subjects  as  come  under  an  Apprentice's  experience 
or  one  with  only  a  moderate  amount  of  training  and  experience. 

b.  Questions  designated  by  "J"  cover  such  knowledge  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  a  Journeyman,  or  one  who  has  completed  a  period  of  preliminary 
training. 

:  c.  Questions  designated  by  "JE"  cover  such  knowledge  as  might  be 
expected  from  a  journeyman  who  could  be  considered  an  expert  and  capable 
of  acting  as  a  foreman  or  boss  or  having  advanced  training  and  experience. 

[These  interviews  are  reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General.'} 


36  TRADE    TESTS 


STANDARD 


Page  1 


MACHINIST 

(GENERAL) 


(a)  Name  six  types  of  machine  tools  and  (b)  describe  the  work 
that  each  is  adapted  for.      % 


(a)  (i)  Engine  lathe,  (2)  planer,  (3)  shaper,  (4)  grinders,  (5)  drill 
press,  (6)  milling  machine.  Most  others  are  a  modified  form  of 
one  of  these:  (b)  (i)  Engine  lathe:  Training  and  boring, 
threading  —  internal  and  external.  (2)  Planer:  Planing  work 
to  a  flat  surface.  (3)  Flat  planing  on  small  work.  (4)  Grinding 
to  smooth  and  close  dimensions.  (5)  Drill  press:  Drilling  and 
boring  holes.  (6)  Milling  machine:  Cutting  key  ways,  gears, 
and  work  which  with  the  use  of  cutters  can  be  more  efficiently 
and  accurately  handled  on  this  machine  than  on  other  tools. 


What  tools  should  be  used  in  measuring  (a)  inside  diameters, 
(b)  outside  diameters? 


(a)  (i)  Inside  calipers,  (2)  inside  micrometer,  and  (3)  plug  gauge, 
(b)  (i)  Outside  calipers,  (2)  outside  micrometer,  and  (3)  snap 
gauge. 


Q.   Name  the  different  common  classes  of  gearing  used  hi  machines. 
A.    (i)  Spur,  (2)  bevel,  (3)  spiral,  (4)  worm.  (5)  herring  bone. 


What  is  meant  by  (a)  "rake"  and  (b)  " clearance "  on  a  lathe 
tool? 


(a)  Angle  or  clearance  given  the  cutting  face  of  tool  at  the  cutting 
edge  which  would  cause  the  tool  to  cut,  curl  and  clear  the  chip, 
(b)  The  angle  ground  on  the  sides  and  front  to  keep  all  but 
the  cutting  edge  of  the  tool  from  rubbing  the  work. 


(a)  How  much  metal   should  be  removed  by  using  a  straight 
fluted  reamer,     (b)  Name  some  other  types  of  reamers. 

(a)  Not  more  than  one  sixty-fourth  inch,    (b)   (i)  Taper,  (2)  ex- 
panding, (3)  chucking,  (4)  rose,  (5)  shell,   (6)  fluted. 


What  are  some  coatings  on  which  lines  may  be  made  for  scribing 
or  marking  on  metals? 


(i)  Dry  chalk,  (2)  powdered  chalk  mixed  with  alcohol,  (3)  rub- 
bing with  sulphate  of  copper,  (4)   white  lead  and  turpentine. 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  37 


STANDARD 


MACHINIST 

(GENERAL) 


Page  2 


1:JE 


Q.  (a)  What  is  the  value  of  the  clapper  box  on  a  shaper,  slotter  and 
planer?  (b)  What  is  the  effect  of  moving  the  clapper  box  holder 
to  either  side  of  the  shaper  and  planer? 


(a)  It  prevents  wearing  away  of  the  cutting  edge  of  tool  by  drag- 
ging on  the  quick  return,  (b)  The  moving  of  holder  in  same 
direction  as  cut  destroys  the  value  of  the  clapper  box,  and  mov- 
ing in  opposite  direction  to  cut  increases  its  value  on  heavy 
cuts. 


Q.   What  are  the  most  common  standard  tapers  in  use? 
2:JE 


A.    (i)  Morse,  (2)  Brown  &  Sharpe,  (3)  Jarno,  (4)  S.  A.  E. 


Q.  What  kind  of  work  can  be  done  on  a  universal  milling  machine? 
3:  JE 

A.  (i)  Cutting  pieces  to  form,  by  using  special  shaped  rotary  cutters. 
(2)  Facing  off  flat  surfaces.  (3)  Cutting  spiral  grooves,  such 
as  twist  drills  and  milling  cutters.  (4)  Dividing  circles  into 
a  given  number  of  parts  by  use  of  dividing  head. 


38  TRADE    TESTS 


STANDARD 

AUTO  REPAIRER 

(ENGINE) 
Pagel 

l:A 

Q. 

What  kind  of  bearings  are  used  in  motors? 

A. 

(i)  Ball,  (2)  babbit,  or  (3) 

bronze  faced  with  babbit. 

2:A 

Q. 

How  should  carbon  be  removed  from  cylinder  and  piston  heads? 

A. 

(i)  Remove  cylinder  or  cylinder  head  and  scrape  off,  or  (2)  burn 
out  with  oxygen. 

3:A 

Q. 

How  should  engine  valves  be  ground  in? 

A. 

(i)  Remove  valve  springs,  (2)  coat  valve  surface  with  grinding 
compound,  (3)  turn  back  and  forth  with  screw-driver  with  very 
little  pressure,  (4)  lift  valve  frequently  and  give  half  turn  while 
off  seat.  Continue  this  operation  until  there  is  an  even  surface 
all  around  and  no  rings  or  ridges. 

i,. 

Q. 

How  should  fit  be  tested  after  fitting  new  connecting  rod  bearings? 

A. 

(i)  Take  hold  of  connecting  rod  at  wrist  pin  and  (2)  try  play  at 
different  positions  all  the  way  around  crankshaft. 

2:J 

Q. 

What  should  be  done  to  "  scrape  in  "  a  connecting  rod  bearing? 

A 

(i)  Coat  the  crank  pin  very  slightly  with  prussian  blue  or  carriage 
blue,    (2)  put   bearing   and    cap   in   place,  (3)  bolt  together, 
(4)  work  connecting  rod  back  and  forth  on  crank  shaft,  (5)  re- 
move, and  (6)  scrape  away  metal  carefully  where  blue  paint 
appears  on  bearing  and  cap.     (7)  Set  bearing  up  so  that  it  is 
slightly  tight. 

3=; 

Q. 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  speed  of  the  cam  shaft  to  that  of  the 
crank  shaft  in  a  six  cylinder  motor? 

A. 

The  cam  shaft  turns  one-half  a  revolution  while  the  crank  shaft 
turns  once. 

0. 

What  are  indications  of  wear  in  a  ball  bearing? 

1:  JE 

A. 

(i)  They  may  be  heard  to  drop  and  become  noisy,  (2)  the  races 
also  become  rough  by  flaking  off  of  the  metal.    If  the  races  are 
not  sufficiently  hardened  they  may  groove  without   flaking. 
(3)  Crankshaft  will  have   play  in  the  bearing  which  can  be 
located  by  lifting  crank  shaft  with  a  jack. 

THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST 


AUTO    REPAIRER 
STANDARD                                      (ENGINE) 

Page  a 

2:JE 

Q. 

Does  the  diameter  of  the  piston  head  vary  from  that  of  the  bottom? 

A. 

•t 

In  some  the  variation  is  about  two  thousandths  of  an  inch;    in 
•    others  there  is  no  difference. 

3:JE 

Q. 

What  clearance  should  be  allowed  between  ends  of  the  rings  in 
fitting  new  piston  rings? 

A. 

Two  thousandths  of  an  inch  for  each  inch  diameter  of  piston. 

4:JE 

Q. 

How  should  a  magneto  be  tuned? 

A. 

(i)  Place  the  crankshaft  in  the  proper  position,  (2)  have  the 
magneto  in  a  position  where  it  will  deliver  a  spark,  (3)  then 
mesh  the  gears  or  connect  the  coupling.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  determine  whether  the  magneto  runs  clockwise  or  anti- 
clockwise. 

5:JE 

Q. 

What  is  the  gear  ratio  of  the  magneto  shaft  to  the  crankshaft  on 
(a)  four  cylinder  motor,  (b)  six  cylinder,  (c)  eight  cylinder, 
(d)  twelve  cylinder? 

A. 

(a)  One  to  one.  (b)  One  and  one-half  to  one.  (c)  Two  to  one. 
(d)  Three  to  one,  unless  a  double  distributor  is  used  when  it 
will  be  one-half  to  one. 

40  TRADE    TESTS 


STANDARD 

MOTION   PICTURE 
OPERATOR 

Page  1 

1:A 

Q. 

Which  side  of  the  film  should  be  toward  the  light? 

A. 

The  emulsion  side. 

2:A 

Q. 

What  is  the  standard  projection  speed? 

A. 

(i)  Ten  pictures  per  seconc 
to  seventeen  minutes  per 

,  (2)  one  foot  per  second,  (3)  sixteen 
reel  of  one  thousand  feet 

3:A 

Q. 

How  should  a  film  patch  be  made? 

A. 

(i)  Cut  film  on  floor  line,  (2)  leave  one-eighth  of  an  inch  margin 
on  one  strip  and  scrape  off  emulsion,  (3)  cement  together  so 
that  perforation  holes  are  in  alignment.     Cement  should   be 
applied  to  celluloid  side  only. 

4:A 

Q. 

What  is  the  use  of  the  revolving  shutter? 

A. 

To  cut  off  light  from  screen  while  one  picture  is  shifting  to  another. 

1:J 

Q. 

What  is  the  lowest  practical  voltage  required  to  maintain  a  direct- 
current  arc? 

A. 

About  forty  volts. 

2:J 

Q. 

Which  arc  requires  the  larger  current  for  the  same  intensity  of 
light  —  A.  C.  or  D.  C.? 

A. 

A.  C. 

3:J 

Q. 

Why  does  a  picture  appear 

distorted  on  the  screen? 

A. 

Screen  and  line  of  projection  not  being  set  at  right  angles. 

4:J 

Q. 

What  size  and  style  wire  should  be  used  for  connecting  arc? 

A. 

Number  six  B.  &  S.  or  larger,  asbestos  covered. 

1:JE 

Q. 

How  should  a  direct  current  arc  be  connected? 

A. 

(i)  Positive  wire   to   the   upper  carbon,   (2)  and  negative  wire 
to  the  lower  carbon  of  lamp. 

THE    OEAL   TRADE    TEST  41 


STANDARD 


MOTION    PICTURE 


OPERATOR 


Page  2 


Q.   What  causes  condenser  lenses  to  break? 
2:JE 


\.    (i)  Arc  too  close  to  condenser.    (2)  Lens  fitting  holders  too  tight. 
(3)   Cold  air  striking  hot  condenser. 


3:JE 


Q.  What  size  carbons  should  be  used  on :  (a)  thirty-five  amperes, 
D.  C.,  (b)  sixty  amperes  D.  C.,  (c)  thirty-five  amperes  A.  C., 
(d)  sixty  amperes  A.  C.? 


\.    (a)  Five-eighths    inch    cored    positive   and    one-half    inch    solid 
negative. 

(b)  Three-quarters    inch    cored  positive   and   five-eighths  solid 
negative. 

(c)  Five-eighths  inch  cored  upper  and  lower. 

(d)  Three-quarters  inch  cored  upper  and  lower. 


Q.   How  is  the  focal  length  of  lens  found,  if  given  the  distance  from 
machine  to  screen  and  the  size  picture  wanted? 


4:JE 


A.  (i)  Multiply  the  distance  between  machine  and  screen  by  width 
of  film  gauge,  (2)  and  divide  by  the  width  of  picture.  This 
will  give  the  focal  length  of  lens. 


42  TRADE    TESTS 


STANDARD                                 *™™°* 

Page  1 

1:A 

Q. 

What  is  a  bench  mark? 

A. 

A  permanent  point  whose  elevation  is  accurately  determined  with 
reference  to  some  fixed  datum. 

2:A 

Q. 

What  is  the  degree  of  curvature  of  a  curve? 

A. 

The  angle  at  center,  subtended  by  a  chord  of  one  hundred  feet. 
It  is  expressed  by  the  number  of  degrees  and  minutes  in  that 
angle. 

3:A 

Q. 

(a)  What  equipment  is  necessary  for  a  transit  to  be  used  as  a 
leveling  instrument?  (b)  What  adjustments  should  be  made? 

A. 

(a)  A  level  tube  on  the  telescope,  (b)  Axis  of  bubble  should  be 
adjusted  parallel  with  line  of  sight. 

1:J 

Q. 

(a)  What  is  meant  by  azimuth?  (b)  If  the  bearing  of  a  line  is 
South  thirty-five  degrees  West,  what  is  the  azimuth  of  the  line, 
taking  North  as  zero  azimuth? 

A. 

(a)  The  angle  that  a  horizontal  line  forms  with  the  magnetic 
meridian,  the  angle  being  measured  in  a  clockwise  direction 
from  zero  to  three  hundred  and  sixty  degrees,  taking  zero 
either  at  the  North  point  or  at  the  South  point,  (b)  Thirty- 
five  degrees  plus  one  hundred  and  eighty  degrees  equals  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  degrees. 

2:J 

Q. 

A. 

How  can  the  leveler  determine  when  the  rodman  is  holding  the 
rod  vertically? 

By  means  of  the  vertical  hair  the  leveler  can  tell  whether  the  rod 
is  in  the  vertical  plane  of  the  line  of  sight.  To  be  sure  that  the 
rod  is  actually  vertical  he  has  the  rodman  sway  the  rod  gently 
toward  and  away  from  the  instrument  and  notes  the  smallest 
reading  obtained  on  the  road.  This  gives  the  vertical  position. 

3:J 

Q. 

(a)  In  leveling  what  is  meant  by  datum?  (b)  What  is  a  grade 
line? 

A. 

(a)  A  datum  is  a  level  surface,  assumed  or  actual,  to  which  the 
elevations  of  other  points  are  referred.  It  is  the  plane  of  zero 
elevation,  (b)  The  grade  line  represents  the  finished  surface 
of  a  road,  railroad,  etc.  It  shows  the  rate  of  rise  or  fall. 

THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  43 


SURVEYER 
STANDARD 

Page  2 


4:J 


Q.  What  will  be  the  elevation  of  grade  at  stations  sixty-five  and 
seventy  with  one  per  cent  ascending  grade,  if  the  elevation  of 
grade  at  station  sixty  is  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet? 


Since  the  grade  is  one  foot  to  every  hundred  feet,  the  elevatjon 
at  Station  Sixty-five  will  be  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  feet 
plus  five  feet,  or  one  hundred  and  sixty-seven  feet,  while  at 
Station  Seventy  the  elevation  will  be  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
two  teet  plus  ten  feet,  or  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  feet. 


JE 


Q.  What  will  be  the  position  of  the  vernier  when  the  angle  read  is 
eighty-four  degrees  thirty-four  minutes  when  the  smallest 
graduation  of  the  limb  of  a  transit  is  one-half  degree  or  thirty 
minutes,  and  the  vernier  reads  to  single  minutes? 


.\.  The  zero  of  the  vernier  will  be  just  past  eighty-four  degrees  thirty 
minutes  on  the  limb,  and  the  graduation  marked  four  on  the 
vernier  will  coincide  with  a  graduation  mark  on  the  limb. 


Q.   Explain  the  method  of  prolonging  a  line  from  a  given  backsight 
by  double  centering. 

JE 

(i)  Set  up  on  line,  (2)  direct  line  of  sight  to  backsight,  (3)  reverse 
telescope  and  set  a  point  ahead,  (4)  revolve  on  vertical  axis  and 
sight  again  to  backsight,  (5)  reverse  telescope,  set  another 
point  ahead,  (6)  take  mean  of  two  forward  points. 


Q.   Name  any  method  of  computing  the  area  of  a  closed  survey 
JE 


\.    (i)   Double  meridian,  (2)  coordinates,  (3)  dividing  into  triangles. 


44  TRADE   TESTS 


TIRE   REPAIRER 
STANDARD                                    (RUBBER) 

Page  1 

1:  A 

Q. 

How  should  small  puncture  in  tube  be  repaired 

A. 

(i)  Rough  the  tube  on  outside,  (2)  wipe  with  cloth  that  has  been 
dipped  in  gasoline,  (3)  apply  vulcanizing  cement  (allow  cement 
to  dry  about  ten  minutes),  (4)  then  cut  small  piece  of  tube 
gum,  (5)  place  this  over  puncture,  (6)  remove  all  air  between 
gum  and  tube. 

2:A 

Q. 

How  should  tube  be  prepared  which  requires  section  to  be  put  in? 

A. 

(i)  Turn  ends  of  tube  back  about  three  inches,  (2)  buff  and 
wipe  to  remove  dust,  (3)  apply  acid  curing  cement,  (4)  allow 
cement  to  dry  about  fifteen  minutes. 

3:  A 

Q. 

What  should  be  done  if  tube  has  a  tendency  to  stick  together? 

A. 

(i)  If  before  vulcanizing  —  separate.  (2)  If  after  vulcanizing  — 
dip  in  cold  water  for  a  minute  and  pull  gradually  apart. 

1:J 

Q. 

How  should  tube  with  long  rip  such  as  caused  by  getting  pinched 
between  rim  and  bead  of  casing  be  repaired? 

A. 

(i)  Rough  both  sides  of  cut  or  rip  with  emery  wheel,  if  possible, 
(2)  clean  inside  of  tube  with  gasoline  about  one  inch  back  from 
cut  on  both  sides,  (3)  apply  vulcanizing  cement  inside  and 
outside  of  tube  allowing  ten  minutes  to  dry,  (4)  cut  piece  of 
inside  patching  material  to  cover  cemented  surface  on  inside  of 
tube,  (5)  dip  inside  patch  in  clean  gasoline,  (6)  insert  patch 
quickly  into  tube  (this  allows  patch  to  spread  evenly  on  tube), 
(7)  allow  this  to  dry  about  five  minutes,  (8)  fill  cut  with  tube 
gum,  (9)  stitch  the  'repair  to  remove  all  air  between  patch  and 
tube. 

2:J 

Q. 

How  should  blow-out  in  casing  be  prepared? 

A. 

(i)  Remove  outside  rubber  and  breaker  fabric,  (2)  buff  cushion 
rubber  from  body  fabric,  (3)  remove  outside  material.  This 
would  depend  entirely  on  size  of  tire  to  be  repaired,  but  in  no 
instance  should  outside  repair  be  smaller  than  three  inches 
lengthwise  with  the  tread  of  the  tire.  The  inside  method  of 
preparation  would  be  the  same  as  used  in  small  fabric  break 
removing  the  fabric,  except  the  stepping  up  would  be  about 
one  inch  for  each  layer  of  fabric. 

THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  45 


STANDARD 


TIRE   REPAIRER 

(RUBBER) 


Page  2 


3:J 


Q.   What  would  be  the  cause  of  an  outside  repair  swelling  or  blister- 
ing when  removing  tire  from  mold  or  cavity? 


A.    (i)  Caused  by  not  removing  moisture  before  applying  cement, 
or  (2)  not  allowing  cement  to  dry  before  applying  material. 


Q.  (a)  What  should  be  done  with  tire  if  the  outside  repair  swelled 
or  blistered  when  removing  from  mold  or  cavity?  (b)  Would 
tire  require  any  further  attention  or  treatment?  (c)  What 
would  be  the  result? 


4:J 


(a)  (i)  Dip  tire  in  cold  water  until  blister  disappears,  (2)  then 
prick  repair  with  brad  awl  to  allow  steam  or  vapor  to  escape, 
(b)  After  it  is  fairly  cooled  off  put  back  into  mold  and  recure 
about  half  the  time  necessary  to  complete  the  full  cure,  (c)  Re- 
pair would  come  off  shortly  after  tire  is  put  into  use.  Vulcani- 
zation not  being  completed,  the  two  surfaces  would  not  stick 
together. 


Q.   What  are  some  of  the  causes  for  honey-combing  of  rubber  during 
vulcanization? 


1:JE 


\.  (i)  Not  allowing  the  cement  sufficient  time  to  dry,  (2)  dampness 
in  the  repair  material,  (3)  lack  of  internal  pressure  in  the  air 
bag. 


Q.   How  can  it  be  determined  whether  or  not  rubber  is  properly 
vulcanized? 


2:JE 


(a)  When  rubber  is  overvulcanized  it  becomes  brittle  and  chips 
or  breaks  easily,  (b)  When  under  vulcanized  it  becomes  dead 
and  has  no  come-back  when  stretched,  (c)  When  properly 
vulcanized  it  has  snap  —  you  can  tell  by  pushing  a  pencil  or 
sharp  instrument  into  it;  if  the  depression  fills  up  readily  it  is 
properly  cured. 


Q.   How  should  fabric  broken  casings  (caused  by  blow-out)  be  built 

up' 
3:  JE 


(i)  By  overlapping  with  rebuilding  fabric  as  many  layers  as 
were  removed,  and  (2)  applying  an  extra  layer  of  fabric  at 
least  two  inches  beyond  the  last  stepped-up  layer. 


46  TRADE    TESTS 


STANDARD                                BRICK-LAYER 

Page  1 

1:A 

Q. 

Why  should  brick  be  wet  before  using? 

A. 

Because  dry  brick  absorbs  water  from  the  mortar,  thereby  injur- 
ing the  binding  qualities  of  the  mortar. 

2:A 

Q. 

What  is  meant  by  tempering  mortar? 

A. 

Working  over  mortar,  which  has  become  stiff,  to  a  proper  con- 
sistency for  use. 

3:A 

Q. 

What  is  meant  by  (a)  courses,  (b)  stretchers  and  (c)  headers? 

A 

(a)  Courses  are  the  horizontal  layers  of  brick,  (b)  Stretcher  is 
the  term  applied  to  a  brick  laid  as  the  wall  runs,  (c)  Header 
is  the  term  applied  to  the  brick  laid  in  the  direction  of  the 
thickness  of  a  wall.  , 

1:  J 

Q. 

Name  the  different  blockings  used  in  brick-laying. 

A. 

(i)  Gable  end  blocking,  (2)  party  wall  blocking  (3)  threfe  course 
blocking  and  toothing. 

2:J 

Q. 

(a)  How  should  a  door  or  window  opening  be  "  topped  out  "  ? 
(b)  Describe  arrangement. 

A. 

(a)  Either  by  an  arch  or  a  lintel.  The  style  arch  usually  em- 
ployed is  the  segmental.  (b)  The  lintel  may  be  of  stone,  iron 
or  steel.  If  it  is  narrower  than  the  wall  in  thickness,  a  second 
lintel,  generally  of  wood  with  an  arch  turned  over  it,  is  placed 
on  the  inside. 

3:J 

Q. 

What  qualities  should  good  brick  possess? 

A. 

(i)  Hardness;  (2)  uniformity  of  color;  (3)  freedom  from  lumps; 
(4)  edges  sharp  and  angles  square;  (5)  a  clear  ringing  sound 
when  struck  with  the  trowel. 

4:J 

Q. 

Give  some  of  the  reasons  why  walls  become  unsafe. 

A. 

(i)  Insufficient  foundations;  (2)  use  of  inferior  mortar;  (3)  walls 
out  of  plumb;  (4)  improper  bonding;  (5)  laying  brick  with 
uneven  courses  and  leveling  up  with  thick  joints  of  mortar; 
(6)  not  anchoring  walls  properly;  (7)  racking  walls  while 
putting  on  beams. 

THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  47 


STANDARD                                 BRICK-LAYER 

Page  2 

1:JE 

Q- 

Describe  the  different  types  of  bond  in  brick  work? 

A. 

(i)   English  Bond  —  Alternate  courses  of  headers  and  stretchers. 
(2)  Flemish   Bond  —  A   header  and   stretcher  in   succession   on 
every  course. 
(3)   Common  Bond  —  Five  courses  of  stretchers  to  one  of  headers. 

2:JE 

0- 

If  you  had  to  do  masonry  work  in  freezing  weather  what  precau- 
tions would  you  take  to  obtain  best  results? 

\. 

(i)  Heat  the  sand  and  water.  (2)  Protect  the  work  from  the 
front,  covering  with  tarpaulin,  straw,  etc.,  until  the  cement  is 
thoroughly  set. 

3:JE 

Q. 

How  are  foundation  walls  protected  from  dampness? 

A. 

(i)  Give  two  coats  of  an  approved  waterproofing  paint,  (2)  apply 
one  inch  of  waterproofed  cement  mortar,  (3)  a  course  of  com- 
mon brick  instead  of  the  mortar  or  (4)  a  course  of  hollow  brick 
plastered  with  cement  mortar. 

4:JE 

Q. 

What  are  curtain  walls? 

A. 

Outer  masonry  walls  used  in  buildings  of  skeleton  type  which 
are  usually  supported  at  every  story  or  every  other  story  by 
the  steel  framework  and  carry  nothing  but  their  own  weight. 

48  TRADE    TESTS 


SHEET    METAL   WORKER 
STANDARD                                     (GENERAL) 

Page  1 

1:A 

Q. 

Name  some  of  the  machines  used  for  sheet  metal  work? 

A, 

(i)  Straight  or  square  shears,  (2)  rotary  _  shears,  (3)  beading 
machine,  (4)  cornice  break,  (5)  folder  wiring  machine. 

2:A 

Q. 

(a)  What  is  a  burring  machine,  (b)  a  brake? 

A. 

(a)  Machine  used  to  turn  small  edges  on  irregular  work,  (b)  Ma- 
chine used  for  forming  sheet  metal  at  different  angles. 

3:A 

Q. 

How  should  black  sheet  iron  be  prepared  for  soldering? 

A. 

Ci)  Scrape  or  file  parts  until  bright,  then  (2)  tin  —  using  "cut 
acid"  as  a  flux. 

I'J 

Q. 

How  should  the  size  of  a  sheet,  from  which  to  cut  a  pipe  of  a 
given  diameter,  be  determined? 

A 

(i)  Length  of  the  pipe  determines  the  first  measurement,  (2)  by 
multiplying  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  by  three  decimal  one  four 
one  six  gives  the  second  measurement. 

2:J 

Q. 

What  gauges  of  metal  are  commonly  used  hi  an  air  heating  system? 

A. 

(i)  Gauges  twenty-two,  twenty-four  and  twenty-six  are  used 
for  main  pipes,  (2)  sixteen  and  eighteen  for  fan  connections. 

3:J 

Q. 

How  is  a  piece  of  wrought  iron  or  brass  tinned  for  "  sweating  "? 

A. 

(i)  Clean  the  iron  or  brass,  (2)  coat  thinly  with  flux  and  (3)  rub 
with  a  hot  soldering  iron,  occasionally  touching  the  solder  until 
a  coating  adheres  to  the  metal,  or  (4)  heat  with  blow  pipe, 
(5)  sprinkle  on  flux  and  rub  with  solder. 

4:J 

Q. 

(a)  What  are  the  main  differences  in  the  method  of  applying  and 
(b)  the  reason  for  the  use  of  hard  and  soft  solder? 

A. 

(a)  Hard  solder  is  applied  with  a  blow  pipe,  and  soft  solder  with 
a  soldering  iron,  (b)  (i)  Hard  solder  is  used  for  high  tempera- 
ture work  and  where  strength  is  required,  (2)  and  soft  solder 
for  low  temperature  work. 

THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  49 


STANDARD 


SHEET    METAL   WORKER 


(GENERAL) 


Page  2 


Q.   What  method  is  used,  where  work  is  large,  in  developing  the  full 

size  patterns  or  "  lay  out  "  on  work  from  scale  drawings? 
1:JE 


A.    (i)  Assume  a  convenient  scale  which  is  workable  in  the  limits  of 
drawing  board  and  design  patter 
for  "laying  out"  or  scribing  woi 
from  "pattern  scale"  to  full  size. 


drawing  board  and  design  pattern,   (2)  then  use  this  pattern 
for  "laying  out"  or  scribing  work,  enlarging  each  dimension 


2:JE 


Q.  Explain  the  terms  (1)  "  parallel  line  development,"  (2)  "  radial 
line  development,"  and  (3)  "  triangulation,"  as  applied  to 
sheet  metal  pattern  drafting. 


A.  (i)  The  method  employed  when  laying  out  patterns  of  regular 
continuous  shapes,  that  is,  the  profile  or  section,  is  continuous 
throughout  the  object  to  be  made. 

(2)  The  method  employed  in  developing  regular  tapering  forms, 
and  takes  in  all  solids  having  any  of    the  regular  geometric 
figures  as  a  base,  which  terminate  in  an  apex,  directly  over  the 
center  of  the  base. 

(3)  The  method  employed  to  develop  irregular  forms  which  can- 
not be  developed  by  either  the  "  parallel  or  radial  line  "  methods, 
the  object  to  be  developed  being  cut  up  in  the  form  of  triangles 
from  which  the  various  true  lengths  are  obtained,  and  with 
which  the  pattern  is  developed. 


Q.   State  what  sheet  metals  can  be  soldered  (1)  when  rosin  is  used 
as  a  flux,  (2)  when  muriatic  acid  is  used  as  a  flux,  (3)  when 
"  killed  "  acid  is  used. 
3:JE 


(i)  Tin  plate,  sheet  copper  and  sheet  lead  can  be  soldered  using 
rosin  as  a  flux.  (2)  Galvanized  iron  and  zinc  can  be  soldered 
using  muriatic  acid.  (3)  Tin  plate,  sheet  copper,  zinc,  bronze 
and  brass  can  be  soldered  using  "killed"  acid  as  a  flux. 


50  TRADE    TESTS 


ELECTRICIAN 
STANDARD                              (INSIDE  WIREMAN) 

Page  1 

1:A 

Q- 

How  should  the  head  of  nail  be  protected  from  splitting  the  knob? 

A. 

By  using  "leather  heads." 

2:A 

Q. 

How  high  from  the  finished  floor  should  ordinary  flush  or  snap 
switch  outlets  be  placed? 

A. 

Four  to  four  and  one-half  feet. 

3:A 

Q. 

Describe  the  proper  method  of  cutting  and  threading  a  piece  of 
conduit. 

A. 

(i)  Cut  the  conduit  with  a  hack  saw,  (2)  ream  the  end  thor- 
oughly until  no  burrs  or  sharp  edges  remain,  (3)  then  proceed 
to  cut  thread,  (4)  thoroughly  oiling  the  dies  with  lard  oil. 

1:J 

Q. 

What  is  the  maximum  allowable  load  of  the  branch  circuits  of  a 
lighting  panel? 

A. 

Six  hundred  and  sixty  watts. 

2:J 

Q. 

What  size  conduit  would  be  used  for  the  following  combination 
of  wires  :  (a)  number  fourteen  duplex  and  number  fourteen 
double  braided  rubber  covered  single  conductor,  (b)  four 
pieces  of  number  twelve  double  braided  rubber  covered  single 
conductor,  (c)  three  pieces  of  number  six  double  braided  rubber 
covered  single  conductor. 

A. 

(a)  One-half  inch  conduit.  (b)  three-quarter  inch  conduit 
(c)  one  and  one-quarter  inch  conduit. 

3:J 

Q. 

Give  proper  method  of  installing  entrance  switch  and  fuses. 

A. 

(i)  Should  be  so  installed  that  fuses  are  toward  the  line,  (2)  en- 
trance switch  so  placed  that  gravity  tends  to  open  switch, 
(3)  blades  of  switch  "dead"  when  in  open  position. 

4  :J 

0- 

How  are  conductors  supported  in  a  vertical  riser  to  take  the 
strain  off  the  contacts? 

A. 

(i)  By  the  use  of  approved  junction  boxes,  or  (2)  ninety  degree 
bend  in  riser. 

THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  51 


STANDARD 


ELECTRICIAN 

(INSIDE    WIREMAN) 


Page  2 


L:JE 


Q.  How  would  you  protect  the  lamps  on  the  low  current  side  from 
being  burned  out  (due  to  an  unusual  load  condition)  on  a  one 
hundred  and  ten  —  two  hundred  and  twenty  volt,  three-wire 
"  Edison  system,"  with  an  unbalanced  lamp  load? 


A.    (i)  By  "blocking  in"  the  neutral  fuse,  or  (2)  running  the  neutral 
straight  through  without  a  fuse. 


Q.  How  many  transformers  and  what  transformer  capacity  should 
be  used  for  fifteen  horse-power,  two  hundred  and  twenty  volt, 
three-phase  induction  motor? 


JE 


\.  Either  one  fifteen-kilovolt  ampere,  three-phase  transformer  or 
two  seven  and  one-half  kilovolt  ampere  single-phase  trans- 
formers. 


Q.   What  are  the  methods  most  frequetly  used  in  inside  wiring? 
JE 


\.    (i)  Knob  and  tube,  (2)  rigid  iron  conduit,  (3)  flexible  iron  con- 
duit, (4)  "B.  X."  conductor,  (5)  metal  moulding. 


Q.   What  advantage  is  gained  by  the  use  of  a  three-phase  trans- 
mission line  as  compared  with  a  single  phase? 


\.    (i)  Reduction  in  the  size  of  copper  for  transmitting  the  same 
amount  of  power,  and  (2)  a  better  balanced  load  condition. 


While  undoubtedly  these  aids  were  of  considerable  value  and 
a  great  improvement  upon  the  previous  state  of  affairs,  where 
no  examination  was  attempted,  the  method  when  put  into 
operation  broke  down  for  the  following  reasons. 

First,  it  was  discovered  that  many  of  the  questions  covered 
such  a  wide  field  that  a  large  number  of  correct  answers  given 
by  highly  skilled  tradesmen  were  not  included  in  the  answers 
supplied  to  the  interviewer.  Under  these  conditions  it  was 
repeatedly  found  that  the  interviewers  were  refusing  to  accept 
answers  which  were  not  given  in  the  manual,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  these  answers  were  sometimes  better  than  those  fur- 
nished there. 


52  TRADE    TESTS 

Second,  the  method  failed  to  furnish  any  objective  rating. 
Even  if  all  the  questions  were  given  by  a  highly  intelligent 
examiner,  it  was  impossible  to  decide  the  degree  of  ability  of 
the  tradesman.  While  undoubtedly  these  interviews  served  to 
eliminate  bluffers,  they  could,  from  their  very  nature,  give  no 
standardized  rating  of  ability.  For  these  reasons  other  methods 
of  oral  examination  had  to  be  sought. 

Third,  the  relative  difficulty  of  each  question  was  not  known; 
some  of  the  journeymen  questions  were,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
easier  than  the  apprentice  questions,  and  vice  versa. 

The  Development  of  the  Single-word  Answer  Question 

The  defects  of  the  general  method  outlined  in  "  Aids  to  Inter- 
viewers" served  as  the  starting-point  for  the  conscious  develop- 
ment of  the  final  oral  trade  test  method.  If  skilled  tradesmen 
could  not  be  employed  as  examiners,  if  a  standardized  rating 
was  essential,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  eliminate  all 
questions  of  the  multiple-answer  type.  This  step,  which  has 
been  described  so  briefly,  involved,  before  its  final  adoption,  a 
vast  amount  of  "trial  and  error"  experimentation.  Most  of 
those  who  were  working  with  the  problem  felt  that  the  reduc- 
tion of  questions  to  the  single-answer  type  involved  a  dangerous 
narrowing  of  the  content  of  the  questions  which  could  be  em- 
ployed. The  restrictions  placed  upon  such  questions,  it  was 
felt,  might  conceivably  damage  their  value  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  would  fail  to  satisfy  the  differentiating  requirement. 
It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  a  large  number  of  questions  which 
might  well  be  employed  by  an  expert  tradesman  cannot  be 
used  when  unskilled  examiners  have  to  give  objective  ratings. 
One  of  the  first  tests  in  which  the  impossibility  of  the  use  of  the 
older  type  of  question  became  apparent  was  in  connection  with 
the  trade  of  rubber  tire  repairer. 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  53 

The  first  type  of  interview  is  shown.  It  can  readily  be  seen 
that  such  an  interview  cannot  be  handled  successfully  by  an 
examiner  who  has  no  knowledge  of  the  process  of  vulcanizing. 
A  cursory  examination  of  the  questions  reveals  the  weakness  of 
the  method.  Even  the  simplest  question  framed  requires  a 
lengthy  and  involved  answer.  This  seems  to  be  necessary  when 
questions  pertaining  to  processes  are  concerned.  Take  for 
example  the  question  marked  ij.  A  complete  answer  to  this 
question  should  cover,  according  to  the  examination,  the  nine 
points  mentioned.  Within  many  of  these  points  there  is  possi- 
bility of  considerable  elaboration.  A  complete  answer  to  such 
a  question  embraces  so  many  items  that  the  examiner  must  of 
necessity  become  confused.  In  addition,  there  is  the  difficulty 
that  even  if  the  examiner  knows  the  trade,  he  is  still  in  doubt 
as  to  what  to  accept  as  the  complete  answer.  If  questions  are 
to  be  reduced  to  the  single-answer  type,  the  processes  must  be 
examined  in  order  to  discover  what  are  the  significant  elements. 
Concerning  these  elements  it  is  perfectly  feasible  to  ask  very 
specific  questions;  in  fact,  if  the  questions  are  carefully  worded 
and  well  selected,  it  is  often  possible  to  reduce  the  answer  to  a 
single  word.  In  addition,  if  elements  in  the  process  are  chosen 
concerning  which  there  is  no  variation  in  practice,  the  single 
answer  will  be  the  reply  given  by  all  tradesmen  who  have  infor- 
mation with  regard  to  that  process.  Without  anticipating  the 
full  description  of  a  trade  test,  the  above  statement  can  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  questions,  of  the  type  which  even- 
tually replaced  the  method  above  described. 

Sample  single-answer  questions  for  tire  repair  workers: 

Question  1.     What  tool  is  used  in  skiving? 
Answer.     Knife. 

Question  2.  How  long  do  you  vulcanize  when  making  a  sectional 
repair  on  a  tire  at  usual  pressure? 


54  TRADE    TESTS 

Answer.     40-60  minutes. 
Question  3.     What  is  meant  by  buffing? 
Answer.     Roughening  (cleaning,  scraping)  the  surface. 
Question  4.     Where  is  cushion  stock  commonly  used? 
Answer.     Between    tread    (breaker    strip)    and    carcass    (body) 
(fabric). 


Limitations  of  the  Single-answer  Questions 

To  forestall  objections  it  may  be  observed  that  the  require- 
ment of  objectivity  in  the  scoring,  which  virtually  necessitates 
a  single-answer  form  of  question,  limits  materially  the  scope  of 
the  question.  It  prevents  absolutely  what  up  to  the  present 
has  been  the  stock  form  of  question,  namely,  that  which  calls 
for  a  more  or  less  complete  description  of  a  process.  Only  with 
regard  to  one  element  in  the  process  can  the  single-answer  form 
of  question  test  information.  When,  however,  this  single  ele- 
ment is  well  chosen,  because  it  is  highly  significant  of  the  total 
procedure,  the  presence  or  absence  of  this  element  of  informa- 
tion may  be  an  exceedingly  reliable  index  of  the  presence  or 
absence  of  the  knowledge  of  the  total  operation.  Even  assum- 
ing that  this  is  true,  the  single-answer  question  still  suffers  from 
another  serious  drawback.  It  is  commonly  recognized  that  one 
of  the  best  tests  of  knowledge  in  a  field  is  the  manner  in  which 
a  large  variety  of  ideas,  or  pieces  of  information  are  brought 
together  and  focussed  in  the  attempt  to  solve  a  complex  prob- 
lem. Each  idea  may  have  little  value  in  itself,  as  a  revealer  of 
knowledge,  but  the  manner  in  which  it  is  combined  and  fused 
with  other  ideas  is  most  indicative.  While  it  may  be  claimed 
that  occasionally  even  a  single-word  answer  question  may  call 
for  the  marshalling  of  facts  and  the  weighing  of  evidence,  it 
must  be  admitted  that  the  large  majority  of  these  questions 
make  no  such  demand.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  merely 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  55 

isolated  pieces  of  information  are  all  that  is  required.  If  the 
questions  are  well  selected,  they  will  center  around  the  im- 
portant jobs  and  operations  of  the  trade,  and  the  element  con- 
cerning which  the  question  is  framed  will  be  so  intimately  and 
conclusively  related  to  this  operation  that  a  correct  answer 
will  be  forthcoming  only  from  a  workman  who  has  successfully 
performed  the  operation.  The  best  form  of  examination,  from 
certain  points  of  view,  is  that  in  which  the  examiner  gives  a 
problem  to  the  examinee,  and  judges  the  power  of  the  latter 
by  the  way  in  which  the  problem  develops  and  enlarges,  as 
time  advances.  Such  a  process  is  the  true  revealer  of  mind 
to  mind,  but  it  necessitates  a  highly  trained  examiner,  and 
frustrates  all  attempts  at  objective  scoring. 

We  may  conclude  by  saying,  quite  frankly,  that  the  single- 
answer  form  of  question  is  far  from  ideal  as  a  test  of  degree  of 
information,  but  it  is  the  best  instrument  so  far  devised  for 
testing  this  factor,  when  objective  scoring  by  an  unskilled  ex- 
aminer is  a  requirement. 

Obviously  the  success  of  this  new  method  of  examination 
depends  on  the  skilful  selection  of  questions.  There  is  a  tech- 
nique in  connection  with  the  construction  of  good  single-answer 
questions  which  will  have  to  be  discussed  in  much  detail  later. 
In  the  interest  of  proving  to  the  reader  that  this  specific  type 
of  question  does  serve  to  differentiate  between  men  of  different 
degrees  of  skill,  we  will  pass  on  to  describe  the  method  used  for 
testing  the  suitability  of  the  questions. 


General  Description  of  Method  of  Testing  the  Differentiating 
Power  of  Single-answer  Question  Method 

The  differentiations  which  it  was  expected  that  any  method  of 
examination  must  perform  were  more  or  less  laid  down  by  army 


56  TRADE    TESTS 

requirements.     The  army  distinguishes  in  any  particular  trade 
between  four  types  of  men: 

1 .  Novice, 

2.  Apprentice, 

3.  Journeyman, 

4.  Expert. 

It  is  impossible  to  define  exactly  what  is  meant  by  each  of 
these  terms.  While  the  novice  is  an  intelligent  adult  who  has 
had  no  experience  in  the  trade,  the  apprentice  is  supposed  to 
possess  the  information  and  skill  of  the  man  who  has  spent  a 
reasonable  amount  of  time  as  a  learner  or  helper  in  the  trade. 
At  first  the  army  defined  the  Apprentice  as  a  "man  who  has 
had  not  more  than  four  years  in  the  trade."  While  this  defini- 
tion is  sound  for  a  great  many  of  the  older  trades,  such  as  car- 
penter, machinist,  pipe  fitter,  etc.,  it  breaks  down  completely 
for  the  newer  trades,  such  as  vulcanizing  or  radiator  repairing, 
acetylene  welding,  oxy-acetylene  welding,  and  others  of  a 
similar  nature.  In  these  occupations  the  period  of  learning  is 
comparatively  short.  With  reasonable  intelligence  a  year,  or 
even  less,  converts  a  novice  into  a  workman  of  average  skill. 
Any  definition  of  an  apprentice  designating  a  period  of  four 
years'  service  is  out  of  the  question.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
army  system  of  classification  is  archaic,  for  the  old  apprentice- 
ship system  upon  which  it  was  founded  has  largely  ceased  to 
exist. 

The  journeyman  was  defined  as  an  individual  who  has  passed 
the  apprentice  stage,  whatever  may  be  the  period,  which  this 
apprenticeship  occupied.  In  addition,  the  journeyman,  accord- 
ing to  army  usage,  must  not  have  had  exceptional  experience  or 
possess  a  thorough,  all-round  knowledge  of  the  trade.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  army  defines  the  standing  by  a  special  term, 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  57 

which  is  unknown  in  industry.  The  term  is  the  so-called  expert 
rating.  An  expert,  by  army  definition,  is  "a  man  who  has  had 
not  less  than  five  years'  experience  as  a  journeyman  and  who 
has  shown  a  superior  knowledge  of  the  trade,  or  such  other 
qualifications  as  are  required  of  a  foreman." 

The  general  method  of  testing  the  differentiating  power  of 
any  set  of  questions  was  to  administer  them  to  20  novices,  20 
apprentices,  20  journeymen  and  20  experts.  The  questions 
were  given  individually  to  these  80  men,  distributed  in  three 
centers,  Newark,  Pittsburg  and  Cleveland.  The  answer  of 
each  man  to  each  question  was  taken  down  in  short-hand,  that 
is,  a  complete  verbatim  report  was  obtained.  This  complete 
report  gave  at  once  information  in  two  important  directions. 
In  the  first  place,  it  served  to  show  whether  the  question  itself 
was  effective,  particularly  whether  it  yielded  a  single  answer  or 
a  large  number  of  possible  correct  answers.  Where  the  ques- 
tion was  ambiguous,  where  a  local  term  was  involved,  where 
the  phrasing  of  the  question  was  incomplete,  the  answers  thereto 
showed  at  once  its  unsuitability.  The  additional  important 
information  which  these  verbatim  answers  furnished  was  with 
regard  to  the  relative  difficulty  of  each  question  for  novices, 
apprentices,  journeymen,  and  experts.  Without  entering  into 
technical  details  at  this  time  it  is  obvious  that  the  ideal  type 
of  question  must  fulfill  the  following  requirements: 

1.  It  must  be  such  that  practically  no  novices  are  able  to 
answer  it  correctly.      If  novices  do  succeed,  the  question  does 
not  test  genuine  trade  knowledge. 

2.  Apprentices  as  a  group  must  be  inferior  to  journeymen 
as  a  group  in  their  power  to  answer  the  question,  while  the 
experts,  as  a  group,  must  show  distinct  superiority  to  the  jour- 
neymen in  their  answers. 

3.  In  addition  the  question  must  be  such  that  it  is  answered 


58  TRADE    TESTS 

by  a  very  large  percentage  of  experts.  If  this  is  not  the  case, 
the  question  is  distinctly  too  difficult  for  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  intended. 

The  method  of  selection  of  the  80  men  who  were  given  the 
examination  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  cannot  be  too 
clearly  recognized  that  during  this  process,  which  we  have  just 
described,  we  are  not  measuring  the  trade  standing  of  the  work- 
men, but  we  are  merely  tes ting ,  out  our  own  method  of  proce- 
dure. The  trade  standing  of  every  man  who  was  examined  was 
known;  only  men  who,  according  to  the  classification  of  fore- 
men under  whom  they  worked,  fell  well  within  one  of  the  divi- 
sions of  apprentice  journeyman,  or  expert,  were  examined. 
Where  there  was  doubt  with  regard  to  trade  experience  or 
standing  the  individual  was  rejected.  In  this  way  the  trade  or 
industry  furnished  men  who  were  known  to  have  three  distinct 
levels  of  ability.  These  levels  of  ability  served  as  the  standard 
for  measuring  the  value  and  efficiency  of  the  method  of  exami- 
nation. We  were  compelled  to  assume  that  the  ratings  given 
by  foremen  in  consultation  were  correct.  Given  these  three 
levels  of  trade  ability,  the  feasibility  of  the  questions  was  tested 
by  the  extent  to  which  they  were  answered  correctly  by  an 
increasing  proportion  of  men  as  passage  was  made  from  the 
novice  class,  through  the  apprentice  and  journeyman  group  to 
the  expert  class. 

Another  method,  used  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment, 
of  testing  the  efficiency  of  such  a  series  of  questions  is  of  interest. 
Throughout  the  process  of  the  standardization  of  the  series  of 
questions  l  from  which  was  to  be  selected  the  final  set  of  ques- 
tions, several  experiments  were  made  to  gain  some  rough  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  the  whole  group  of  questions  differen- 

1  The  method  of  collection  of  these  questions  will  be  discussed  in  the 
following  chapter. 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  59 

dated  between  various  levels  of  trade  ability.  The  usual  method 
of  procedure,  where  such  an  attempt  was  made,  was  to  ask  the 
foreman  or  superintendent,  before  the  examination  was  given, 
to  rank  the  men  according  to  their  usefulness  as  tradesmen. 
Those  who  did  the  ranking  were  warned  not  to  consider  such 
traits  as  punctuality,  loyalty,  etc.,  but  merely  to  rank  the  men 
according  to  their  practical  trade  ability.  This  ranking,  made 
either  by  the  foreman  or  superintendent,  alone  or  in  consulta- 
tion, was  retained  by  them,  not  being  shown  to  those  who  were 
to  administer  the  trade  test.  The  thirty  or  forty  questions  were 
then  administered  in  a  routine  way  to  the  tradesmen  who  had 
already  been  ranked.  In  this  way  two  rankings  were  secured. 
The  first  was  the  result  of  expert  supervision  extending  over 
several  years;  it  was  based  upon  close  contact,  under  the  actual 
conditions  of  the  job.  The  second  was  a  ranking  given  by  a 
nontechnical  examiner,  as  the  result  of  twenty  minutes  exami- 
nation. The  crucial  test  of  the  method  is  found  in  the  degree  in 
which  these  two  rankings  coincide.  It  was  unfortunate  that 
the  method  could  not  be  tried  out  within  a  single  plant  on 
thirty  or  forty  workmen  who  could  be  rated.  This  was,  how- 
ever, for  reasons  given  later,  contrary  to  the  practice,  it  being 
the  rule  not  to  examine  more  than  seven  to  ten  men  in  one 
plant.  Such  ratings  as  were  obtained  involved  therefore  but 
few  cases:  the  results  however  show  the  close  correspondence 
between  the  foreman's  ratings  and  those  given  by  the  test. 

Pending  the  presentation  of  full  evidence  in  the  next  chapter, 
it  may  be  dogmatically  stated  that  the  Oral  Trade  Test  suc- 
ceeded remarkably  well  in  differentiating  between  men  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  of  ability  as  found  in  the  trade.  By  selecting  the 
most  suitable  questions  it  was  possible  to  construct  an  exami- 
nation in  which  the  novices,  apprentices,  journeymen  or  experts 
reached  different  levels  of  score.  That  is  to  say,  the  experts 


60  TRADE    TESTS 

TABLE  SHOWING  CORRESPONDENCE   BETWEEN   RATING   OF  FORE- 
MAN (F)  AND  THE  RATING  BY  THE  ORAL  TEST  (T) 

LINEMAN  TEST 


Group 

/ 

Group 

II 

Group 

/// 

Group 

/F 

Group 

F 

F. 

T. 

F. 

T. 

F. 

T. 

F. 

T. 

F.      T. 

i 

2 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

i 

2 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

3 

45 

3 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3- 

5 

4 

4-5 

4 

4 

4 

5 

4 

4 

4 

3- 

5 

5 

3 

5 

7 

5 

3 

5 

5 

5 

5 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

7 

8 

7 

5 

7 

7 

8 

7 

9 

10 

10 

9 

as  a  group  scored  higher  than  the  journeymen,  the  journeymen 
higher  than  the  apprentices,  and  the  apprentices  higher  than 
the  novices.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  few  journeymen  did  not 
occasionally  score  as  high  as  the  lowest  of  the  experts,  and  a 
few  apprentices  as  high  as  the  lowest  of  the  journeymen,  but  in 
no  case  was  there  any  great  difficulty  in  drawing  dividing  lines 
between  the  classes,  so  that  the  overlapping  was  small.  This 
process  of  deciding  the  critical  scores  for  each  level  of  trade 
ability  is  termed  calibrating  the  test.  When  this  calibration 
is  completed  on  men  of  known  trade  ability,  it  can  then  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  standing  of  men  whose 
proficiency  in  the  trade  is  unknown. 

To  make  the  meaning  of  these  critical  scores  perfectly  clear  * 
the  journeyman  rating,  57-74,  means  simply  this:  when  the 
set  of  twenty-one  questions  was  administered  to  a  group  of 
average  journeymen,  in  different  plants  and  in  different  cities, 
the  large  majority  of  them  scored  between  fourteen  and  eigh- 

*  See  following  trade  test:  —  Telephone  Repairer  Switchboard,  p.  74 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  61 

teen  answers,  with  credit  of  4  points  for  each.  This  record  is 
not  a  matter  of  opinion,  nor  is  it  the  estimate  of  an  expert. 
It  is  the  actual  performance  of  typical  men  engaged  in  the 
trade.  Suppose  then  that  the  examination  is  given  to  an  un- 
known workman,  who  answers  fifteen  questions  correctly,  or 
in  other  words  scores  sixty  points.  Under  these  conditions  we 
may,  with  a  high  degree  of  probability,  assume  that  his  pro- 
ficiency corresponds  with  that  of  the  average  journeyman  en- 
gaged in  the  trade.  If,  however,  he  had  scored  thirty-six  points 
or  seventy-eight  points,  we  should  have  been  justified  in  rating 
him  as  an  apprentice  in  the.  first  place,  an  expert  in  the  second. 
It  seems  desirable  at  this  point,  even  though  the  reader  will 
not  understand  in  detail  the  process  by  which  the  trade  test  has 
been  constructed  nor  the  method  by  which  the  standards  have 
been  deduced  for  the  various  trade  levels,  novice,  apprentice, 
journeyman  and  expert,  to  present  several  complete  trade 
tests.  A  careful  examination  of  these  tests  will  serve  as  the 
best  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  intricate  experimental 
process  which  has  to  be  gone  through  in  order  to  compile  such 
a  test.  If  the  reader  could  try  out  some  of  these  tests  upon 
actual  tradesmen  *  before  reading  further,  it  would  not  only 
establish  his  confidence  in  a  method  concerning  which  he  may 
be  skeptical,  but  it  would  also  afford  a  very  good  basis  for 
understanding  the  discussion  which  is  to  follow.  The  danger 
of  inserting  these  tests  before  a  full  description  of  their  method 
of  construction  has  been  given  lies  in  the  possibility  of  the 

1  The  reader  is  cautioned  against  assuming  that  the  content  of  an  army 
trade  is  identical  with  the  trade  of  the  same  name  in  civil  industry.  In  more 
directions  than  one  the  ways  of  the  army  are  past  finding  out.  Certainly 
the  strange  trade  names  which  they  give  within  the  army  afford  a  proof  of 
the  above  statement.  For  example,  by  an  armature  winder  in  civil  life  is 
commonly  meant  a  person  who  merely  does  the  winding  of  coils,  whereas 
the  army  meaning  of  the  term  is  much  more  nearly  covered  by  the  civil 
occupation  of  electrical  repair  man. 


62  TRADE    TESTS 

reader  thinking  that  a  trade  test  is  any  set  of  questions,  thrown 
together  at  random.  Succeeding  chapters  will  correct  this 
notion,  for  it  will  reveal  the  fact  that  the  construction  of  a 
measuring  device  for  trade  ability  involves  the  most  rigorous 
application  of  scientific  method. 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  63 

TRADE  TEST 
PAINTER.  —  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.   What  do  you  do  to  knots  and  sappy  places  before  painting? 
A.    Shellac.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   When  is  the  puttying  done  on  new  wood- work? 

A.    After  priming  (first  coat).  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  is  the  brightest  yellow  used? 

A.    Chrome.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  is  a  finishing  coat  mixed  with  if  a  flat  surface  is  required? 

A.    Turpentine.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   What  is  the  best  paint  to  use  on  wrought  iron  to  keep  it  from 

rusting? 

A.    (i)  Red  lead.  Score  4 

(2)  Graphite.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  lower  portion  of  a  wall  which  is  painted  a 

darker  color? 
A.    Dado.  Score  4 


64  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   What  hard  wood  besides  mahogany  is  best  for  a  mahogany  finish? 

A.    Birch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  do  you  use  to  clean  the  surface  of  the  wood  after  using 

paint  remover? 

A.    (i)  Benzine  (gasoline).  Score  4 

(2)  Alcohol.  Score  4 

(3)  Vinegar.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  do  you  use  to  bleach  an  exposed  oak  door  before  refinishing? 

A.    Oxalic  acid.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  do  you  use  for  rubbing  down  enamels  for  a  dull  finish? 
A.    Pumice.  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  is  used  to  dissolve  oxalic  acid? 

A.    Water.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  operation  of  pouring  paint  from  one  bucket 

into  another? 

A.    Boxing.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   What  device  is  used  for  working  just  outside  of  a  single  window 

on  a  high  building? 

A.    Jack.  Score  4 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   What  is  the  proper  way  to  clean  off  an  alligatored  surface  on  the 

inside  of  a  hardwood  door? 
A.    Paint  (varnish)  remover.  Score  4 

QUESTION    15 

Q.   What  is  applied  first  on  porous  wood  to  get  a  natural  finish? 

A.    Filler.  Score  4 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  05 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   How  would  you  care  for  a  paint  brush  after  being  used  for  the 

first  time? 

A.    Lay  out.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.   What  stain  do  you  get  by  mixing  Van  Dyke  brown,  ground  Japan, 

rose  lake  and  rose  pink? 

A.    Mahogany.  Score  4 

QUESTION    18 

Q.   Why  is  a  small  quantity  of  blue  or  black  added  to  white? 
A.    (i)  Bleach  (whiten).  Score  4 

(2)  Keep  from  turning  yellow.  Score  4 

QUESTION    19 

Q.   What  color  must  be  used  in  stain  to  get  a  brown  mahogany  finish? 

A.    Van  Dyke  brown.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.   What  color  is  Dutch  pink? 

A.    Yellow  (ochre)  (mustard).  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

27  and  below N 

28  and  29 A  — 

30  to  49  inclusive A 

50  and  51 A  + 

52  and  53 J  - 

54  to  65  inclusive J 

66  and  67 J  -j- 

68  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


66  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
BLACKSMITH.  —  Forger,  Hammersmith 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  keeps  the  top  die  from  slipping  back  and  forth? 
A.    Key  (pin)  (dowel).  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  anvil  tool  do  you  use  for  smoothing  off  the  surface  of  a 

forging? 

A.    Flatter.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   To  what  is  the  top  die  fastened? 

A.    Ram  (head).  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   How  are  the  handles  of  large  forge  tongs  held  together  while 

carrying  work? 

A.    Link  (ring).  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   What  do  you  use  for  measuring  the  size  of  work  while  forging? 

A.    Calipers.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   To  what  color  do  you  draw  a  cold  chisel  for  cutting  cast  iron? 
A.    Blue.  Score  4 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  67 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   What  is  the  shape  of  the  hole  in  a  bolster  for  making  a  flatter? 

A.    Square.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  is  the  man  called  who  has  charge  of  the  work  while  it  is 

in  the  fire? 

A.    Heater.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   When  using  top  and  bottom  dies  to  make  a  forging,  what  is  the 
waste  material  called  which  forms  around  the  forging? 

A.    Fin  (flash)  (flange)  (scale).  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  kind  of  oil  is  used  for  tempering? 

A.    (i)  Fish.  Score  4 

(2)  Linseed.  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  do  you  put  on  bottom  dies  so  the  billet  will  not  be  ham- 
mered below  a  desired  thickness? 
A.    Sizer  (peg)  (snap-block)  (gauge).  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  will  happen  to  a  billet  in  a  hollow  fire  if  a  piece  of  coke  gets 

on  it? 

A.    Burn  hole.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   What  tool  do  you  use  to  cut  off  the  end  of  a  billet  on  a  half  circle? 
A.    Gouge  (circle  cutter)  (circle  hack).  Score  4 

QUESTION    14 

Q.  In  drawing  out  a  long,  heavy  bushing  what  tool  do  you  use  in- 
side of  the  bushing? 
A.    Mandrel.  Score  4 


68  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  What  kind  of  tongs  do  you  use  for  pulling  light  pieces  from  the 

fire? 

A.    Pick-up.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  tool  do  you  use  under  the  hammer  to  make  a  2-inch  cir- 
cular hole  in  a  disk  1  inch  thick? 
A.    Punch.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

15  and  below N 

16  and  17 A  — 

18  to  31  inclusive A 

32  and  33 A  + 

34  and  35 J  - 

36  to  50  inclusive. J 

51  and  52      J  + 

53  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  69 

TRADE  TEST 
CARPENTER.  —  Cabinet  Maker 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.   How  can  a  bruise  in  a  piece  of  wood  be  raised? 
A.    (i)  Wet.  Score  4 

(2)  Hot  iron  on  damp  cloth.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  is  used  to  close  the  pores  of  open-grained  wood  before 

finishing? 

A.    Filler.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.   How  can  a  bevel  be  cut  with  a  circular  saw? 
A.    (i)  Tilting  (setting)  table  (top).  Score  4 

(2)  Gauge  (guide).  Score  4 

QUESTION  4 

Q.  With  what  do  you  set  the  cut  of  the  blade  on  a  metal  smoothing 

plane? 

A.    Screw.  Score  4 

QUESTION  5 

Q.  With  what  kind  of  a  joint  is  a  table  leg  fastened  to  the  rail  of 

the  table? 

A.    (i)  Mortise  (tenon).  Score  4 

(2)  Dowel.  Score  4 


70  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   How  is  an  oak  log  sawed  to  get  the  best  effect  of  the  grain? 
A.    Quartered.  Score  4 

QUESTION    7 

Q.   What  is  the  name  of  the  largest  plane  commonly  used? 
A.    Joint  (fore).  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  does  the  number  of  a  saw  mean? 

A.    Number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  hand-saw  would  you  use  to  cut  a  round  piece  out  of  a 
board? 

A.    Compass  (key-hole).  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  is  done  to  the  surface  of  the  veneer  and  core  before  gluing 

to  make  the  glue  stick? 
A.    Roughened*  (scratched)  (tooth-planed).  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  is  fastened  across  the  width  of  the  board  to  keep  it  from 

warping? 

A.    Batten  (cleat).  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  plane  do  you  use  to  plane  the  end  of  a  small  board  across 

the  grain? 

A.    Block  (butt).  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   How  is  veneer  |  of  an  inch  thick  treated  before  gluing? 
A.   Heated  (steamed).  Score  4 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   What  is  meant  by  shakes  in  wood? 

A.    Cracks  (splints)  (checks).  Score  4 


THE    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  71 

QUESTION   15 

Q.   What  are  two  kinds  of  joints  used  for  the  front  of  a  drawer  in 

fine  cabinet  work? 

A.    (i)  a.  Dovetail.  Score  4 

b.  Rabbet  (lap)  (tongue  and  groove). 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   Why  are  doors  made  up  of  panels? 

A.    Allow  for  shrinkage  (swelling)  (warping).  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.   What  is  used  for  roughing  down  varnish  or  shellac  besides  sand- 
paper or  pumice  stone? 
A.    Steel  wool  (wire  hair).  Score  4 

RATING   THE    CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

15  and  below N 

16  and  17 A  — 

18  to  29  inclusive .A 

30  and  31 A  + 

32  and  33 J  - 

34  to  53  inclusive...  .  J 

54  and  55...  J  + 

56  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  -f-  rating. 


72  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
AUTO   MECHANIC.  —  Auto  Repairer,  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  are  steering  column  bushings  made  of? 

A.    (i)  Bronze  (brass).  Score  4 

(2)  Steel.  Score  4 

(3)  Babbitt.  Score  o 

(4)  Cast  iron.  Score  o 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  joint  is  there  between  the  differential  and  the  transmission? 

A.    Universal.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  is  the  best  way  to  repair  a  badly  cracked  cast-iron  trans- 
mission housing? 

A.    (i)  Weld  (braze).  Score  4 

(2)  Rivet  on  a  patch  (plate).  Score  2 

(3)  Solder.  Score  o 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  damage  would  be  caused  if  an  engine  became  much  over- 
heated through  lack  of  water? 
A.    (i)  Score  cylinders.  Score  4 

(2)  Pistons  seize  (freeze).  Score  4 

(3)  Burn  out  bearings.  Score  4. 

(4)  Burn  (warp)  valves.  Score  2 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  73 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   What  are  distributor  brush-holder  covers  made  of? 
.    (i)  Rubber  (hard  rubber).  Score  4 

(2)  Fibre.  Score  4 

(3)  Bakelite.  Score  4 

Any  metal,  Score  o 
QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  regulates  the  height  of  gasoline  in  the  carburetor? 
A.    (i)  Float.  Score  4 

(2)  Float  valve.  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   What  happens  to  the  breaker  points  if  the  condenser  is  bad? 
A.    Burn  (pit)  (foul)  (carode).  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  two  metals  are  cam-shaft  bearings  usually  made  of? 
A.    (i)  a.  Bronze  (brass).  Score  4 

b.  Babbitt  (white  metal). 

QUESTION  9 

Q.   How  are  body  springs  fastened  to  the  spring  seats? 
A.    (i)  Clips  (U-bolts).  Score  4 

(2)  Shackles.  Score  o 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  part  of  the  carburetor  governs  the  speed  of  the  motor? 
A.    (i)  Butterfly  (throttle)  (shutter).  Score  4 

(2)  Air  valve.  Score  o 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  are  two  ways  of  driving  the  cam-shaft? 
A.    Chains  and  gears.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  is  the  most  common  way  to  hold  the  wrist-pin  in  position? 
A.    Set  screw  (cap  screw).  Score  4 


74  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   13 

Q.   What  is  the  result  if  the  wrist-pin  set  screw  works  loose? 
A.    (i)  Score  (groove)  cylinder.  Score  4 

(2)  Pin  drop  out.  Score  o 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   What  should  be  done  in  regard  to  the  temperature  of  the  motor 
before  making  any  permanent  adjustment  on  the  carburetor? 
A.    Warm  it  up.  Score  4 

QUESTION   15 

Q.   What  will  happen  if  the  timing  gear  teeth  bottom  or  mesh  too 

deeply? 

A.    (i)  Make  noise  (grind)  (roar).  Score  4 

(2)  Break  teeth.  Score  o 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   What  are  the  two  windings  in  an  armature  or  coil? 
A.    (i)  a.  Primary  (low)  (low  tension).  Score  4 

b.  Secondary  (high)  (high  tension). 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

13  and  below N 

14  and  15 — A  — 

16  to  38  inclusive A 

39  and  40 A  + 

41  and  42 J  - 

43  to  55  inclusive. . . .' !  1  ^^.7\ J 

56  and  57 J  + 

58  and  above " E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  inserted  to  provide  the  examiner  with  a  means 
of  guarding  against  the  candidate's  coaching  for  the  examination. 
The  Supplementary  Questions  should  be  used  only  when  necessary. 
Not  all  of  these  questions  should  be  asked  any  one  tradesman. 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  75 

QUESTION   A 

Q.   What  are  the  marks  on  the  fly-wheel  used  for? 

A.    (i)  Timing  (timing  engine)  (timing  motor)  Score  4 

(timing  valves)  (timing  ignition). 

(2)  Setting  valves  (setting  cams)  Score  4 

(setting  cam-shaft). 

QUESTION   B 

Q.   If  a  cylinder  is  scored  from  overheating  what  repairs  are  neces- 
sary to  put  it  in  good  condition? 

A.    (i)  Rebore.  Score  4 

(2)  Regrind.  Score  4 

QUESTION   C 

Q.   What  is  the  best  material  to  use  to  show  the  high  point  when 

scraping  a  bearing? 

A.    (i)  Blue  (Prussian  blue).  Score  4 

(2)  Lamp  black.  Score  4 


76  TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE   TEST 

TELEPHONE  MAN.  —  Telephone  Repairer. 
Switchboard 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   How  does  the  wire  chief  notify  the  subscriber  that  his  receiver  is 

off  the  hook? 
A.    Howler.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  voltage  is  used  on  a  common  battery  system  exclusive  of 
*    |      ringing? 

A.    22  to  48.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  What  insulating  material  is  use     between  the  carbon  plates  of 

a  protector  or  lightning  arrestor? 

A.    Mica.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  Where  are  the  plugs  inserted  in  a  switchboard? 
A.   Jacks.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  What  gauge  wire  is  generally  used   for  cross  connections  or 

jumpers? 

A.    (i)  20.  Score  4 

(2)  22.  Score  4 

(3)  24.  Score  4 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  77 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  kind  of  current  can  flow  through  a  condenser? 
A.    (i)  A.  C.  (alternating  current).  Score  4 

(2)  Pulsating.  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   Through  what  part  of  the  protectors  do  lightning  discharges  pass 

to  the  ground? 
A.    Carbon.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  metal  are  switch  board  relay  contacts  made  of? 
A.    (i)  Platinum.  Score  4 

(2)  Silver.  Score  4 

(3)  German  silver.  Score  4 

QUESTION  9 

Q.  With  what  instrument  do  you  measure  a  condenser  kick? 

A.   Voltmeter.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10    ' 

Q.   What  are  cable  skinners  always  treated  with  to  keep  out  moisture? 
A.    (i)  Wax.  Score  4 

(2)  Paraffin.  Score  4 

(3)  Shellac.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  does  E.M.F.  mean? 

A.    Electromotive  force.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  do  the  marks  2  M.F.  on  a  condenser  mean? 

A.    2  microfarads.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  is  the  voltage  of  a  dry  cell? 

A.    i  to  i\.  Score  4 


78  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   What  is  meant  by  I.D.F.  in  a  large  telephone  office? 

A.    Intermediate  distributing  frame.  ,     Score  4 

QUESTION   15 
Q.   Name  in  order  the  first  five  colors  in  the  switchboard  cable  color 

code. 
A.    (i)  a.  Blue.  Score  4 

b.  Orange. 

c.  Green. 

d.  Brown. 

e.  Slate. 

Note:  All  required.     No  partial  credits. 

QUESTION    16 

Q.  What  is  the  voltage  of  a  one-cell  storage  battery? 
A.    2  to  2.6.  Score  4 

QUESTION    17 

Q.   What  part  of  the  station  apparatus  prevents  the  flow  of  direct 

current  through  the  circuit? 

A.    Condenser.  Score  4 

QUESTION    18 

Q.   What  is  the  name  of  the  third  talking  circuit  where  only  two  pairs 

of  wires  are  used? 

A.    Phantom.  Score  4 

QUESTION  19 

Q.   Why  are  wires  twisted  in  pairs? 

A.    (i)  Prevent  induction.  Score  4 

(2)  Prevent  cross  talk.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  resistance  of  a  magneto  telephone  receiver? 
A.    65  to  100.  Score  4 


THE    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  79 

QUESTION   21 
Q.  At  a  temperature  of  80°  Fahrenheit  what  allowance  should  be 

made  in  hydrometer  reading? 

A.    3.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

20  and  below N 

21  and  22 A  — 

23  to  54  inclusive A 

55  and  56 • A  -f 

57  and  58 J  - 

59  to  72  inclusive J 

73  and  74.  .. J  + 

75  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


CHAPTER  III 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  AN   ORAL  TRADE  TEST 
(DETAILED   PROCEDURE) 

Random  Sampling  of  Ability 

IN  any  examination  of  trade  ability,  certain  implicit  assump- 
tions are  made.  It  is  advisable  to  see  clearly  just  what  these 
assumptions  are,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  limit  the  possi- 
bilities of  an  adequate  examination.  The  statement  has  already 
been  made  that  trade  ability  is  a  resultant  of  the  combination 
of  (i)  certain  skills;  (2)  certain  elements  of  information.  In  oral 
tests  we  are  making  the  somewhat  broad  assumption  that  the 
amount  of  skiU  can  be  measured  indirectly  by  a  determination 
of  the  amount  of  information  possessed  by  the  tradesman. 
In  addition  to  this  assumption  made  in  the  oral  test,  there  is 
another  which  is  common  to  all  types  of  examination,  whether 
of  the  oral,  picture,  written  or  performance  kind.  It  is  obvious 
that  whether  we  are  striving  to  measure  skill  or  information, 
it  is  utterly  out  of  the  question  to  examine  the  tradesman  in 
all  the  trade  processes  in  which  he  is  skilled;  likewise  it  is  im- 
possible in  a  single  examination  to  cover  all  the  knowledge 
which  is  possessed  by  the  tradesman.  Only  observation  of  actual 
work  in  a  thousand  and  one  jobs  would  enable  any  adequate 
estimate  to  be  made  of  the  majority  of  the  "  skills"  possessed  by 
the  workman,  while  it  would  require  a  test  of  several  thousands 
of  questions  in  most  trades,  to  cover  the  larger  part  of  the 
information  possessed  by  an  expert. 

Under  these  conditions  we  have  to  resort  to  what  is  tech- 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  81 

nically  known  as  the  "Procedure  of  Sampling."  To  sample 
means  merely  to  test  or  examine  by  means  of  a  portion  or  speci- 
men. A  sample  is  a  portion  taken  at  random  out  of  a  quantity 
supposed  to  be  homogeneous,  the  assumption  being  that  the 
properties  or  qualities  of  the  sample  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  be  found  in  the  whole.  This  process  is  so  familiar 
that  a  single  illustration  will  make  the  meaning  of  the  formal 
definition  patent.  Suppose  a  large  plant  receives  from  the  same 
source  several  trainloads  of  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
kind  of  steel.  Before  it  can  be  used  it  is  necessary  to  verify 
(i)  whether  its  composition  agrees  with  those  qualities  demanded 
by  the  specification;  (2)  whether  all  of  the  various  loads  are  of 
the  same  kind,  or  whether,  in  other  words,  the  material  is  homo- 
geneous. Before  answer  is  made  to  these  two  questions,  the 
common  procedure  is  to  take  samples  from  this  batch,  and 
from  that  batch,  at  random;  to  submit  these  samples  to  chemi- 
cal analysis,  and  from  this  analysis  of  perhaps  not  more  than 
a  few  ounces,  the  whole  material,  running  into  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  tons,  is  taken  or  rejected.  The  accuracy  of  the 
final  judgment,  provided  the  analyses  themselves  are  correct, 
depends  on  the  degree  to  which  the  few  samples  taken  are 
representative  of  the  whole  material,  or  as  the  definition  has 
it,  the  extent  to  which  "  the  properties  or  qualities  of  the  sam- 
ples may  reasonably  be  expected  to  be  found  in  the  whole." 

When,  therefore,  an  attempt  is  made  to  measure  general 
trade  ability,  either  by  oral  questions,  performances,  or  pic- 
tures, it  is  essential  that  the  elements  of  information  asked  for 
or  the  skills  which  are  tested,  be  representative  as  far  as  possi- 
ble of  the  total  range  of  ability.  Where  a  thousand  questions 
would  by  no  means  cover  the  ground,  twenty  questions  have 
to  be  chosen  with  great  circumspection,  if  there  is  to  be  a  rea- 
sonable sampling  of  the  total  information. 


82  TRADE    TESTS 

The  questions  must  be  scattered  among  the  various  proc- 
esses of  the  trade  —  no  two  questions  should  involve  the  same 
process.  In  this  case  the  correct  answer  to  the  one  question 
often  gives  an  almost  certain  probability  of  the  correct  answer 
to  the  second.  What  is  required  where  only  twenty  questions 
are  to  form  the  final  test  is  to  have  each  question  not  only  taken 
from  twenty  different  important  processes  of  the  trade,  but 
also  cover  the  element  in  the  process  concerning  which  adequate 
knowledge  is  the  most  indicative  of  information  with  regard  to 
the  other  elements  which  constitute  the  complete  process. 
Twenty  questions  chosen  carefully,  from  this  point  of  view, 
may  well  cover  a  range  of  ground  which  several  hundred  less 
carefully  selected  might  not  touch.  Especially  when  an  at- 
tempt is  made  to  conform  to  the  single-word  answer  question, 
and  the  questions  are  secured  merely  from  one  shop  or  one 
expert,  there  is  very  apt  to  result  a  group  of  questions  concern- 
ing a  single  process  stressed  in  that  one  shop,  or  by  that  one 
expert.  This  group  of  questions  must  be  replaced  by  the  single 
most  significant  question,  the  significance  of  the  question  being 
dependent  on  the  degree  to  which  a  correct  answer  is  an  almost 
certain  indication  of  the  presence  of  the  other  information  con- 
cerning which  there  are  no  questions. 

As  will  be  seen  later,  in  the  case  of  the  performance  test,  the 
difficulty  is  greater.  In  the  oral  question  a  comparatively  large 
area  can  be  touched;  in  fact,  in  the  time  consumed  by  the  ordi- 
nary performance  test  it  would  be  feasible  to  ask  several  hun- 
dred questions  covering  varied  branches  of  the  occupation. 
From  the  nature  of  the  performances,  the  time  consumed  by 
the  examination  of  the  skill  on  a  single  job  is  such  that,  if  several 
days  are  not  given  the  examination,  only  one  or  two  special 
skills  can  be  examined.  Under  these  conditions  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  choose  two  or  three  typical  tests  which  can  be 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  83 

fairly  taken  as  representative  of  the  whole  range  of  skills  pos- 
sessed by  the  expert  workman. 

It  is  now  possible  to  discuss,  in  more  detail,  the  essential 
stages  through  which  a  trade  test  must  pass  before  it  can  be 
used  as  a  satisfactory  measuring  device  for  trade  ability.  The 
various  stages  are: 

1.  The  compilation  of  the  proposed  questions, 

2.  The  preliminary  testing  of  questions  with  elimination  and 

revision, 

3.  The  final  testing  of  questions  for  purposes  of  standard- 
ization, 

4.  Statistical  treatment  of  results, 

5.  Selection  of  final  questions  and  calibration  of  the  test. 

Each  one  of  these  stages  will  now  be  considered  separately. 
It  is  the  object  of  the  description  of  these  processes  to  enable 
the  reader  to  construct  for  himself,  with  the  minimum  of  waste- 
ful experimentation,  an  oral  trade  test  for  any  occupation  in 
which  he  may  desire  to  hire  men. 

Compilation  of  the  Questions 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  success  of  the  trade  test 
method  was  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  those  who  compiled  the 
questions  were  not  expert  tradesmen.  This  necessitated  con- 
stant contact  with  tiade  conditions.  By  far  the  most  important 
source  of  information  consisted  of  experts  who  were  actually, 
at  the  time,  engaged  in  the  occupation.  While  the  compiler 
of  the  question  took  advantage  of  the  literature  on  the  trade, 
the  larger  number  of  the  questions  came  directly  from  foremen 
and  experts.  Even  when  a  question  was  suggested  by  books  or 
previous  examinations  in  the  trade,  it  was  always  talked  over 
with  numerous  practical  tradesmen  before  it  was  included  in 


84  TRADE    TESTS 

the  first  trials.  The  work  of  the  compiler  and  the  tradesman  was 
usually  complementary.  While  the  trade  expert  furnished  the 
necessary  knowledge  of  the  processes  of  the  trade,  the  ques- 
tions that  he  propounded  were  usually  of  the  vague,  multi- 
answer  type.  It  was  only  in  the  rare  case  that  the  expert  framed 
questions  of  the  kind  required  for  the  purposes  of  an  objective 
trade  test.  Such  being  the  case  the  business  of  the  compiler 
was,  on  his  side,  to  analyze  and  examine  the  questions  and 
problems  proposed  in  order  to  convert  them  into  questions 
which  elicited  only  a  single  answer. 

Had  the  compilers  themselves  been  familiar  with  the  trade, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  the  questions  would  have  savored  more 
of  the  polished  desk  and  the  quiet  office,  than  of  the  forge  and 
bench.  It  was  the  enforced  consulation,  at  the  very  beginning 
of  the  assembly  of  the  questions,  with  foremen  and  expert 
tradesmen,  in  their  own  shops,  surrounded  by  the  machines 
and  tools  with  which  they  were  working,  that  guaranteed  the 
practical  nature  of  the  instrument. 

As  soon  as  it  was  decided  to  work  on  a  particular  trade,  the 
first  problem  was  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  a  test  in  this 
field.  Was  it  of  such  a  nature  that  it  contained  the  necessary 
informational  elements .  Did  it  permit  of  grading  according  to 
degrees  of  skill?  In  some  trades  it  was  found  that  the  occupa- 
tion required  simply  the  performance  of  a  single  set  of  opera- 
tions: there  were  no  gradations  among  the  members  of  the 
trade.  A  large  number  of  the  so-called  occupations  which 
modern  production  methods  of  industry  have  called  into  exist- 
ence, are  examples  of  occupations  in  which  there  is  almost  no 
gradation  in  skill;  the  operation  can  be  done  or  not  done;  there 
is  no  middle  path.  When  it  was  decided  that  the  trade  was 
such  that  the  oral  method  could  be  applied,  the  next  stage 
involved  the  collection  of  practical  information  upon  which 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  85 

the  questions  were  to  be  based.  This  information  was  secured 
by  visiting  plants  and  talking  with  the  men  in  the  shop.  After 
explaining  the  general  nature  of  the  problem  to  a  foreman,  a 
question  which  the  author  often  put  to  the  tradesman  will  illus- 
trate the  procedure.  "Suppose  you  were  hiring  a  man  out  of 
town,  away  from  your  shop  and  tools,  what  are  some  good  trade 
questions  you  would  ask,  to  be  sure  that  the  man  had  the  trade 
ability  he  claimed?"  Usually  this  question  served  to  open  up 
negotiations  and  question  after  question  was  forthcoming. 
Where  this  method  was  not  successful  in  eliciting  the  informa- 
tion, the  compiler  would  watch  work  in  operation,  and  ask 
questions  himself  with  regard  to  tools  and  operations.  Nearly 
always,  after  a  few  minutes  even  the  most  secretive  foreman 
became  a  ferment  of  questions.  Most  of  them,  however,  were 
in  a  form  totally  unsuited  to  the  purpose  of  the  examination. 
The  important  thing  is  that  this  process  furnished  material 
upon  which  the  compiler  could  work  and  which  was  not  the 
result  of  the  study  of  books  or  theory,  but  came  out  of  the  prac- 
tical experience  of  the  man  on  the  job. 

The  type  of  question  which  was  commonly  proposed  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  examples  which  are  cited  in  the  "Aids  to 
Interviewers"  on  page  35-51.  Questions  of  this  type  have  to  be 
analyzed  into  their  elements  by  the  compiler,  and  reduced  to  a 
simpler  form  requiring  a  single  answer.  To  illustrate  this 
process  some  specific  examples  may  be  given  with  advantage, 
as  indicating  some  of  the  more  outstanding  difficulties  which 
were  met.  The  common  faults  of  the  simpler  forms  of  ques- 
tions were  found  either  in  their  vagueness  or  in  the  chance  they 
afforded  even  a  nontradesman  of  guessing  the  answer.  Especially 
was  this  the  case  in  those  questions  to  which  the  answer  was 
merely  "Yes"  or  "No."  As  examples  of  the  first  type  thou- 
sands of  questions,  as  they  came  from  the  foremen,  could  be 


80  TRADE    TESTS 

given  verbatim.  The  most  common  was  the  question  calling 
for  a  description  of  a  long  process.  "  How  should  a  spring  be 
removed  from  a  car?  "  This  can  be  answered  in  a  large  number 
of  ways  and  it  cannot  be  scored  objectively.  In  many  ques- 
tions both  faults  were  present,  as,  for  instance,  in  a  question 
proposed  for  blue  printers.  "  Which  is  better,  to  overexpose 
or  underexpose  a  print?  Why?  "  The  first  part  of  the  answer 
is  a  guess:  the  second  part  calls  for  a  long  explanation  which 
only  the  expert  could  understand  and  no  man  living  could 
score  objectively.  As  an  example  of  guess  questions  we 
may  take  the  following:  "Which  way  should  the  front  wheels 
be  turned,  if  the  rear  wheels  are  skidding  to  the  right?"  Here 
the  answer —  "To  the  right"  —  can  obviously  be  guessed  with 
a  fifty  per  cent  chance  of  accuracy.  Or  again  a  question  of  this 
type,  in  which  the  fact  is  less  obvious.  "  In  making  a  solid 
cylinder  pattern,  on  which  side  would  you  put  the  tapered 
core  print?"  The  pattern  maker  with  the  least  knowledge  of 
his  trade  knows  that  it  must  be  either  on  the  cope  or  drag  side. 
Even  though  he  has  never  seen  the  process,  he  has  a  fifty  per 
cent  chance  of  a  correct  answer  if  he  guesses.  A  third  example, 
requiring  no  trade  knowledge  whatsoever  for  a  correct  guess 
half  the  number  of  times,  is  "  Can  a  milling  machine  be  used  for 
the  spacing  of  holes  without  a  layout?"  The  answer  is  merely 
"Yes"  or  "No."  It  will  be  seen  that  the  questions  of  this  type 
were  framed  without  reference  to  the  way  in  which  they  would 
meet  the  army  problem.  In  nearly  all  cases,  where  the  ques- 
tions did  not  admit  of  guessing,  the  answers  were  so  long  and 
involved  that  they  could  not  be  scored  objectively,  or  in  many 
cases  even  understood  by  the  nontechnical  examiner.  It  be- 
comes an  easy  matter  after  a  little  practice  to  convert  a  large 
number  of  these  vague  and  guess  questions,  elicited  from  the 
foreman,  to  a  form  in  which  they  can  be  employed.  If  instead 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  87 

of  asking  for  information  concerning  the  whole  process,  an 
essential  element  of  the  process  is  isolated,  and  a  question 
framed  with  regard  to  this  element,  usually  a  definite  objective 
answer  may  be  secured.  Often  skilful  rewording  will  convert 
a  useless  guess  question  into  a  most  serviceable  one. 

As  many  readers  will  be  likely  to  construct  series  of  questions 
for  trades  within  their  own  industry,  the  following  points,  which 
were  the  outcome  of  many  months  practical  work,  will  be  of 
value. 

Guides  far  the  Compilation  of  Oral  Trade  Questions  with  the 
Aid  of  Experts 

1.  Analyze  with  the  aid  of  experts  the  actual  jobs  in  the  trade. 

Watch  the  common  processes  of  the  trade  and  become  famil- 
iar with  the  terms.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  an  under- 
standing of  the  typical  operations  of  the  trade,  to  ensure  the 
correct  choice  of  questions. 

2.  The  information  secured  from   watching  tradesmen  per- 
forming   their  jobs  should  be  supplemented  by  the  study  of 
trade  manuals  but  great   care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
trade  manuals  are  of  a  practical  nature.     Furthermore,  if  any 
suggestions  are  received  from  the  study  of  the  manual,  before 
these  suggestions  are  employed,  they  should  be  talked  over  with 
expert  tradesmen,  to  discover  their  suitability. 

3.  With  the  aids  above  described,  construct  a  few  typical 
questions  covering  the  important  elements  of  the  trade.     Re- 
member that  the  expert  is  ignorant   of   trade   test  methods; 
while  he  knows  his  trade,  he  does  not  realize  what  type  of  ques- 
tion is  wanted.     A  few  sample  questions  will  show  him  what 
is  being  sought.     After  he  has  grasped  the  method,  elements 
of  the  trade  which  seem  most  obvious  will  often  furnish  the 
best  type  of  trade  question. 


88  TRADE    TESTS 

4.  Do  not  expect  the  expert  to  formulate  the  question.    He 
can  supply  the  information,  but  he  can  rarely  word  the  ques- 
tion to  fulfill  the  rigid  requirements  of  the  examination.     The 
compiler  himself  must  word  the  question  from  the  information 
he  receives. 

5.  The  wording  of  the  question  cannot  be  too  simple.    The 
author  well  remembers  one  which  ran  as  follows:  "What  is  the 
function  of  the  float  in  the  carburetor?"    Two  mechanics  ex- 
amined in  succession  commented:   "If  you  tell  me  what  'func- 
tion' is,  I'll  answer  the  question." 

6.  The  terms  of  the  question  should  be  as  far  as  possible  in 
the  vocabulary  of  the  shop.    It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  talk 
in  the  language  of  the  tradesman. 

7.  Avoid  catch  questions.     They  make  the  applicant  sus- 
picious.    Use  the  simplest  possible  language  in  the  question. 
The  test  is  to  measure  trade  ability  and  not  power  to  use  the 
English  Language. 

8.  Make  your  question  clear.     It  is  impossible  to  be  too 
specific. 

9.  Whenever  it  is  feasible  in  a  trade,  questions  should  be 
framed  which  demand  precise  numerical  answers.    If  sufficient 
care  is  taken  by  the  assembler  to  make  the  desirability  of  numeri- 
cal answers  obvious  to  the  expert,  there  are  few  trades  in  which 
some  of  the  questions  cannot  be  of  this  type. 

10.  Avoid  questions  yielding  a  numerical  answer  to  which 
there  are  limits.    Such  limit  questions  are  very  difficult  to  score, 
because  of  different  practices  in  the  trades.     For  example,  in 
the  question,  "How  much  stock  should  be  left  in  a  one  and  one- 
quarter  inch  hole  for  hardening  and  grinding?"  the  most  com- 
mon answer  is  five  to  eight  thousandths  of  an  inch,  but  from 
job  to  job  there  will  be  variations,  depending  on  particular  con- 
ditions, which  make  the  "  5  to  8  thousandths"  only  one  of  many 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  89 

possible  answers.  It  is  almost  impossible  with  questions  of 
this  limit  type  to  get  sufficient  uniformity  in  answer  to  enable  a 
nontradesman  to  score  correctly. 

11.  Questions  should  have  only  one  part,  and  the  answer 
should  be  such  that  a  single  word  is  sufficient.      In  this  connec- 
tion a  very  good  help  is  to  decide  the  trade  term  that  is  desired 
for  the  answer,  and  then  frame  the  question  so  that  it  will  fit 
the  answer  decided  upon  and  yield  no  other  possible  answer. 

12.  As  a  rule  questions  beginning  with  the  word  "how" 
should  be  avoided.     They  usually  call  for  a  description  of  a 
process  which  is  lengthy.     Such  questions  do  not  permit  objec- 
tive marking. 

13.  Be  very  careful  in  the  use  of  the  word  "  kind  "  or  "  type." 
Such  questions  are  apt  to  be  vague.     For  example,  "Name 
four  kinds  of  reamers."      Here,  the  answer  called  for  may  be 
the  names  of  makers,  or  sizes,  or  hand,  machine,  rose,  expansion, 
etc.     The  same  criticism  applies  to  a  question  of  this  type: 
"What  type  of  socket  should  be  used  when  wiring  in  damp 
places?"    Here  the  answer  called  for  is  "weather  proof  or  por- 
celain," but  as  the  question  is  framed  a  maker's  name  will  often 
be  secured. 

14.  In  order  to  avoid  local  terms,  try  the  question  out  on 
workmen  who  have  had  very  diverse  training  and  experience. 
A  question  may  appear  to  be  fair  for  all  the  men  in  one  plant, 
but  incomprehensible  to  experts  in  other  plants. 

15.  The  questions  must  be  so  chosen  that  they  represent  all 
degrees   of   difficulty,   otherwise   they   cannot  be   expected   to 
measure  the  three  grades  of  trade  ability. 

1 6.  Questions  must  be  avoided  which  are  either  included  or 
assumed  in  other  questions. 

17.  Aim  to  secure  a  good  balance  in  the  number  of  questions 
on  each  aspect  of  the  trade.    The  number  of  questions  covering 


90  TRADE    TESTS 

each  aspect  should  vary  with  the  importance  of  that  element 
of  the  trade.  Avoid  questions  which  are  concerned  with  a 
highly  specialized  branch  of  the  trade,  or  found  only  in  a  par- 
ticular type  of  work. 

1 8.  A  consideration  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  at  all 
times  is  that  any  question,  however  important,  from  the  stand- 
point of  bringing  out  the  principle  of  the  trade,  is  useless  if  it 
calls  for  a  long  and  rambling  answer.    The  short,  concise  answer, 
with  a  single  cue- word,  is  the  great  desideratum. 

19.  Having  secured  questions  from  an  expert,  take  advantage 
of  every  opportunity  to   try  out  these  questions  on  the  other 
experts,  with  whom  consultation  takes  place.     If  the  questions 
are  not  "fool-proof,"  this  fact  will  be  readily  discovered. 

To  return  to  the  army  procedure,  it  was  usually  necessary 
to  consult  at  least  five  experts,  in  different  plants,  working 
under  different  conditions,  to  secure  seventy  or  eighty  questions 
which  fulfilled  the  requirements  stated  above.  By  a  more 
careful  application  of  these  requirements  and  others  of  less 
importance,  the  seventy  or  eighty  questions  were  sifted  down 
to  approximately  fifty.  These  were  then  compiled  into  a  set 
known  as  "The  Preliminary  Try-out  Questions."  A  descrip- 
tion of  this  first  testing  of  the  questions  is  given  in  the  next 
section. 

The  Preliminary  Testing  of  Questions 

The  fifty  or  sixty  questions  which  remained,  after  the  first 
selection,  were  then  administered  to  a  number  of  tradesmen, 
usually  from  nine  to  twelve,  the  apprentice,  journeymen  and 
experts  being  about  equally  represented. 

The  method  of  giving  the  examination  was  completely  stand- 
ardized. Though  detailed  instructions  as  to  the  administration 
of  a  trade  test  will  be  given  later,  the  general  directions  may  be 
briefly  outlined  here.  The  examiner  read  the  question  just  as 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  91 

it  stood;  even  though  experience  showed  that  the  first  word- 
ing was  wrong,  no  change  was  allowed  in  the  question  during 
the  preliminary  try-out.  No  help  by  gesture  or  emphasis  was 
to  be  given  the  tradesman.  The  examiner  was  allowed  however 
to  use  certain  "follow  up"  questions  when  the  answer  given  by 
the  tradesman  seemed  to  be  to  the  point  but  did  not  corre- 
spond with  that  given  in  the  test.  These  standardized  follow-up 
questions  were: 

(1)  Anything  more? 

(2)  Any  other  name  for  it? 

(3)  Any  other  way  of  saying  the  same  thing? 

(4)  Any  other  way  of  doing  it? 

The  full  answer  to  each  question  was  recorded  verbatim,  to- 
gether with  any  of  the  above  "follow  up"  questions,  which 
were  employed  to  elicit  further  information.  Full  notes  also 
were  taken  of  any  significant  comments  made  by  the  tradesman. 
'  It  has  been  said  that  in  this  preliminary  try-out  tradesmen 
from  different  shops  or  plants  were  examined,  in  order  to  elimi- 
nate questions  dependent  on  specialized  methods  or  modes  of 
expression  confined  to  a  single  plant.  In  addition,  to  get  the 
benefit  of  more  than  one  point  of  view  for  revision,  at  least  two 
examiners  worked  on  each  set  of  questions  at  this  stage.  /^ 

A  careful  examination  of  the  answers  given  by  the  appren- 
tices, journeymen  and  experts  offered  a  ready  means  of  check- 
ing each  question  for  the  following  points: 

I.  Is  it  applicable  to  the  trade? 

II.  Does  it  represent  good  trade  practice? 

III.  Does  it  need  to  be  modified,  supplemented  to  yield  a 
suitable  answer,  or  must  it  be  eliminated . 

IV.  Does  it  differentiate  between  the  three  different  levels 
of  trade  ability? 


92  TRADE    TESTS 

Further,  the  examination  of  the  questions  as  a  group  showed 
the  extent  to  which  there  was  a  representative  sampling  of  the 
range  of  trade  processes. 

In  the  light  of  these  answers,  the  fifty  or  sixty  odd  questions 
were  then  examined  carefully  one  at  a  time.  Certain  questions 
were  eliminated  for  one  reason  or  another.  Some  were  reworded 
or  changed  in  form  and  in  others  additional  answers  were  added 
which  the  try-out  had  shown  were  correct  alternatives  to  the 
original  answer.  This  process  reduced  the  questions  to  a  small 
enough  number,  usually  thirty  to  forty,  to  admit  of  easy  stand- 
ardization. Care  was  taken  to  see  that  the  remaining  questions 
were  sufficiently  wide  in  scope  to  represent  different  degrees  of 
trade  ability.  These  questions,  with  their  answers,  were  then 
ready  for  the  next  stage  of  the  process,  namely  the  final  try-out 
for  purposes  of  accurate  standardization. 

Final  Testing  of  Questions 

The  final  testing  of  the  question  was  merely  an  elaboration 
of  the  method  used  in  the  preliminary  testing,  which  has  just 
been  described.  Instead,  however,  of  using  three  apprentices, 
three  journeymen  and  three  experts,  the  test  was  now  adminis- 
tered, in  full,  in  each  one  of  the  four  groups,  to  twenty  men  who 
were  known  to  be  typical  representatives  of  the  four  classes  — 
novice,  apprentice,  journeyman  and  expert.  Extreme  care  was 
taken  to  secure  correct  information  concerning  each  man  before 
he  was  rated  as  a  typical  representative  of  his  group.  The  novice 
must  be  a  man  of  good  intelligence  and  good  general  knowledge, 
but  he  must  have  had  no  specific  trade  experience.  The  appren- 
tice must  have  had  sufficient  experience  to  lift  him  out  of  the 
novice  class,  but  at  the  same  time  he  ought  not  to  have  had  a 
sufficient  period  in  the  trade  to  acquire  the  experience  of  an 
ordinary  journeyman.  For  this  purpose  in  those  trades  where 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  93 

four  years  is  the  usual  length  of  apprenticeship  it  was  custom- 
ary to  examine  men  who  had  had  not  less  than  nine  months  or 
more  than  two  years'  experience.  The  journeyman,  for  the 
same  reason,  was  not  considered  typical  if  he  had  that  degree  of 
intelligence  and  experience  which  might  reasonably  be  con- 
sidered the  mark  of  an  expert.  Under  ordinary  conditions  no 
man  of  more  than  four  years'  experience  as  a  journeyman  was 
taken  as  a  representative  of  his  group.  The  greatest  difficulty 
in  assigning  the  proper  trade  status  was  encountered  in  the 
case  of  the  expert,  j  While  a  minimum  of  six  or  eight  years  as  a 
journeyman  was  considered  essential,  mere  length  of  experience 
was  no  criterion.  |  In  choosing  men  as  representatives  of  the 
trade  levels,  apprentice,  journeyman  or  expert,  the  joint  judge- 
ments of  several  foremen,  and  that  of  the  employer  were  used. 
Seeing  that  at  this  stage  we  were  really  testing  the  test  by  the 
extent  to  which  these  men  of  known  trade  ability  were  able  to 
answer  the  questions,  it  can  be  seen  how  essential  was  the  accu- 
racy of  these  trade  ratings.  In  all  cases  the  examiner  was  com- 
pelled to  classify  the  men  before  the  examination  commenced. 
This  was  done  to  avoid  being  influenced  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  tradesmen  answered  the  questions. 

In  order  to  obtain  as  wide  a  sampling  of  tradesmen  as  pos- 
sible, the  general  rule  was  established  that  not  more  than  six  men 
should  be  examined  in  one  plant.  In  addition  to  this  precau- 
tion, three  testing  stations  were  used,  one  in  Cleveland,  one  in 
Newark,  and  one  in  Pittsburg.  This  was  done  to  get  the  benefit 
of  wide  geographical  distribution.  By  this  means  any  questions 
which  involved  the  use  of  local  terms  could  be  detected  and 
eliminated.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  trade  tests  were  to  be 
applied  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  this  freedom  from  geographi- 
cal bias  was  essential. 

The  procedure  of  the  examination  was  precisely  the  same  as 


94  TRADE    TESTS 

that  which  was  to  be  used  later  in  the  camps,  with  this  excep- 
tion —  whereas  in  the  camps  the  answers  were  not  recorded  but 
merely  scored,  in  the  final  try-out,  as  in  the  preliminary  one, 
a  full  verbatim  record  of  the  answer  to  each  question  was  made. 
The  examiner,  in  addition  to  being  responsible  for  giving  the 
question  in  the  exact  form  and  seeing  that  the  answer  given 
was  recorded  correctly  by  the  stenographer,  was  also  charged 
with  the  duty  of  scoring  the  question.  The  credits  allowed  for 
each  question  were  from  zero  to  four.  The  reason  for  the  intro- 
duction of  this  graded  system  of  scoring  grew  out  of  the  rather 
vague  type  of  question  which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  work,  was 
used  in  the  examination.  Later  when  the  single-answer  question 
was  reduced -in  most  cases  to  a  single- word  answer,  the  reason 
for  the  graded  scoring  ceased  to  exist.  At  the  very  beginning 
of  the  work  there  was  much  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  author 
to  the  use  of  partial  credits,  on  the  ground  that  this  complicated 
the  issue,  permitting  great  subjectivity  in  the  scoring.  It  was. 
however,  contended  that  a  question  which  was  partially  correct 
must  be  given  a  partial  credit.  This  was  largely  a  concession  to 
common  opinion.  Extensive  experiments  in  the  realms  of  edu- 
cational measurement  had  shown  before  1917  the  inadvisability 
of  using  partial  credits.  As  the  one-word  answer  trade  test 
evolved,  the  whole  system  was  reduced  virtually  to  an  "all  or 
none"  method  of  scoring.  An  answer  was  either  perfect  and 
given  a  credit  of  four,  or  else  it  was  wrong,  in  which  case  it  was 
assigned  zero. 

The  answer  furnished  with  the  questions  was  in  many  cases 
merely  a  key-word.  It  was  no't  expected  that  the  tradesman 
would  limit  himself  in  his  answer  merely  to  a  single  word,  though 
in  the  better  form  of  trade  question  this  was  largely  the  case. 
The  examiner  scored  the  question  perfect,  provided  the  answer 
included  the  key-word.  An  illustration  will  make  this  clearer. 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  95 

In  the  test  for  Brass  Melters  this  question  is  asked,  "What  is 
done  to  the  core  to  let  out  the  gas  when  pouring?  "  The  answer 
given  in  the  test  is  "vented."  In  this  case,  provided  the  man 
in  a  descriptive  answer  used  the  term  "vented,"  he  was  given 
full  credit,  though  in  many  cases  his  answer  would  be  a  very 
short  description  of  the  process.  Where  there  were  two  or  more 
possible  correct  answers  to  a  question,  the  most  likely  answer 
was  given  first,  and  the  alternative  answers  were  placed  in 
parenthesis.  In  this  case  any  one  of  the  answers  was  accept- 
able and  scored  four.  The  candidate  was  not  expected  to  give 
both  answers.  The  following  questions  for  the  Printing  Press 
Operator  illustrates  this  point. 

Question,  "Where  do  the  form  rollers  get  ink?" 

Answer,  "Slab  (plate),  (table)." 

This  procedure  furnished  very  full  information  with  regard  to 
each  question.  In  certain  cases,  when  the  material  had  been 
collected  and  carefully  examined,  it  was  discovered  from  a  study 
of  the  journeyman  or  expert  replies  to  certain  of  the  questions 
that  the  original  answers  were  incomplete.  In  this  case  the 
alternative  answers  were  inserted.  The  particular  questions  in 
which  this  took  place  were  then  remarked,  in  the  light  of  these 
alterations.  This  had  to  be  done,  otherwise  the  scoring  in  the 
standardization  process  would  have  differed  from  that  eventually 
used  in  the  camps.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  performance  of 
the  eighty  men  of  known  trade  standing  was  establishing 
norms,  it  was  absolutely  essential  to  have  the  standards  constant. 
A  question  for  Lithographic  Pressmen  at  the  commencement  of 
final  testing  was  as  follows:  "What  is  put  on  the  blanket  cylin- 
der after  it  has  been  cleaned?" 

Answer,  Sulphur  (score  4) 
Chalk     (Score  4) 
When  the  answers  of  the  Experts  were  examined  it  was  dis- 


96  TRADE    TESTS 

covered  that  it  was  common  practice  to  use  soapstone.  This 
alternative  was,  therefore,  added  to  the  possible  answers  and 
the  records  of  the  eighty  men  were  remarked,  to  make  the  scor- 
ing coincide  with  this  addition.  This  remarking  necessitated  in 
those  cases  where  the  men  had  only  answered  "Soapstone," 
a  change  of  credit  from  zero  to  four. 

It  cannot  be  too  clearly  emphasized  that  at  this  stage  it  was 
absolutely  impossible  to  attempt  to  alter  the  form  or  wording 
of  the  question.  Additions  could  be  made  to  the  answers,  for 
this  involved  merely  remarking,  but  even  the  slightest  altera- 
tion in  the  form  of  the  question  would  have  nullified  all  the 
evidence  obtained.  Where  a  question  was  wrongly  worded, 
elimination  was  the  only  alternative.  The  question  could  not 
be  altered  without  administering  it  again  to  the  eighty  men. 
The  verbatim  answers  of  the  eighty  men  to  all  the  proposed 
questions  being  assembled,  the  next  stage  in  the  process  was 
the  statistical  treatment,  from  which  resulted  the  selection  of 
the  final  questions,  and  establishment  of  the  standards  of 
achievements. 

Statistical  Treatment  of  Results 

The  first  step  before  commencing  the  statistical  treatment 
proper  was  to  examine  roughly  the  answers  to  each  of  the  ques- 
tions. A  rapid  examination  of  this  kind  revealed,  at  once,  that 
some  questions  could  not  be  employed.  The  most  common 
causes  of  this  rejection  were: 

1.  Correct  answers  to  the  questions  were  so  varied  that  it 
was  impossible   to   conform   to   the   objective   requirement  of 
marking. 

2.  The  process  in  the  trade  upon  which  the  question  was 
based,  on  further  examination,  proved  to  be  doubtful  practice. 

3.  The  question  proved  to  be  suitable  for  one  locality,  but 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  97 

was  not  suitable  for  general  use.  Thus,  a  question  might  be 
well  answered  at  Newark  and  fail  to  function  in  Cleveland  and 
Pittsburg. 

4.  On  further  examination  a  certain  ambiguity  would  be 
revealed  in  the  question. 

The  rejections  on  the  above  points  usually  reduced  the  ques- 
tions by  ten  or  more,  leaving  as  a  rule  thirty  to  thirty-five 
questions,  which  were  then  subjected  to  routine  statistical 
analysis. 

The  objective  of  the  statistical  analysis  was  to  make  careful 
study  of  the  answers  and  scores  in  each  of  the  remaining  ques- 
tions, in  order  to  determine  the  relative  value  of  each  individual 
question  and  its  suitability  for  selection  as  a  part  of  the  final  test. 

In  order  to  make  clear  this  somewhat  complex  process  of 
standardization,  the  chart  containing  the  full  statistical  data 
for  a  typical  test  is  reproduced.  For  economy  of  space  only  the 
results  for  the  twenty  final  questions  are  recorded.  Each  dot 
denotes  a  correct  answer  for  which  a  score  of  four  points  was 
given.  There  were  no  partial  scores  allowed  in  this  test.  The 
chart  with  the  footnotes  is  self-explanatory. 

A  careful  study  of  this  chart  will  facilitate  an  understanding 
of  the  whole  statistical  process. 

Generally  speaking,  if  a  trade  test  is  good,  a  known  expert 
when  tested  is  able  to  answer  all  or  nearly  all  the  questions 
correctly;  a  journeyman  is  able  to  answer  the  majority;  an 
apprentice  a  smaller  part,  and  a  novice  practically  none.  This 
does  not  mean  that  each  question  should  be  answered  correctly 
by  all  the  experts,  a  majority  of  the  journeymen,  some  appren- 
tices, but  no  novices.  It  is  only  a  few  of  the  more  ideal  ques- 
tions which  show  this  gradual  increase  in  difficulty,  as  we  pass 
from  level  to  level.  The  method  by  which  this  increase  in 
difficulty  was  graphically  represented  will  be  now  described. 


98 


TRADE   TESTS 


20  APPRENTICES 


This  chart  shows  all  the  statistical  data  used  in  the  making  of  the 
test.  Of  the  50  questions  originally  assembled  and  used  in  the 
samplings,  all  but  the  20  shown  were  rejected  for  various  reasons. 
Each  dot  denotes  a  correct  answer  having  a  score  value  of  4.  There 
were  no  partial  scores  allowed  in  this  test. 

Column  I  shows  the  number  of  correct  answers  to  each  question 
by  Novices.  (Columns  III,  V  and  VIII  show  similar  facts  for 
Apprentices,  Journeymen- and  Experts  respectively.) 

Column  II  shows  the  average  score  of  Novices  for  each  question. 
Column  I  shows  that  on  question  5,  2  out  of  20  Novices  scored  4  each, 
making  a  total  Novice  score  of  8.  Dividing  by  20  gives  an  average  of 
.4  as  shown  in  Column  II.  (Columns  IV,  VI  and  VIII  show  similar 
facts  for  Apprentices,  Journeymen  and  Experts  respectively.) 

Column  IX  shows  the  total  score  of  Novices,  Apprentices,  Journey- 
men and  Experts  combined  for  each  question,  obtained  by  adding,  in 
each  case,  Columns  I,  III,  V,  and  VII,  and  multiplying  by  4.  The 
highest  score  indicates  the  easiest  question,  number  i  in  Column  X. 

The  unnumbered  column  signifies  number  of  questions  in  original 
series. 

Column  X  shows  the  20  selected  questions  as  they  will  appear  in 
the  completed  test,  arranged  in  ascending  order  of  difficulty. 


AN   ORAL    TRADE    TEST 


99 


For  the  purposes  of  clearness  in  presentation,  we  shall  sup- 
pose that  the  test  was  given  to  exactly  twenty  novices,  twenty 
apprentices,  twenty  journeymen,  and  twenty  experts.  The  in- 
formation shown  in  the  table  was  collected  with  regard  to  each 
question.  For  an  ideal  type  of  question,  the  first  horizontal 
line  in  the  table  would  read  as  follows:  Of  the  twenty 
novices,  not  a  single  one  got  the  answer  correct  Of  the 
twenty  apprentices,  seven  answered  the  question;  thus  the 
twenty  apprentices  scored  among  them  28  points,  four  points 
being  given  for  each  correct  answer.  Their  average  score, 
therefore,  on  that  question  was  1.4.  This  is  obtained  by 
dividing  the  twenty-eight  points  by  the  number  of  apprentices 
tested.  Similarly,  the  bottom  line  would  read  as  follows:  all 
the  experts  examined  answered  the  question  correctly,  thereby 
scoring,  on  the  basis  of  four  points  for 
a  question,  eighty  points.  This  made 
the  average  score  of  the  experts  ex- 
actly 4.0. 

The  graphical  representation  of  this 
table  is  shown  in  Fig.  i.  In  this 
graph,  the  novice,  apprentice, 
journeyman,  and  expert  are  distri- 
buted at  equal  distances  l  along  the 
abscissa.  The  ordinate  axis,  rating 
from  o  to  4,  records  the  average  per- 
formance of  the  four  groups  examined. 
Thus,  for  example,  an  average  score 
of  one  on  the  question,  by  a  group  of  twenty,  implies  that 

1  To  the  statistically  trained  reader  it  will  be  obvious  that  these  equal 
distances  imply  equal  increments  of  total  trade  ability  from  class  to  class. 
This  assumption  is,  of  course,  erroneous,  but  the  convenience  justifies  this 
method,  provided  the  reader  keeps  in  mind  that  these  distances,  truly  repre- 
sented, would  be  by  no  means  equal. 


IDEAL   QUESTION 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

0 

7 

13 

20 
/ 

3 

/ 

2 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

0 

/ 

Av. 

0 

1.4 

2.6 

4.0 

Fig. 


100  TRADE    TESTS 

five  of  the  twenty  individuals  gave  correct  answers.  In  the 
graph  itself  it  is  shown  that  the  average  apprentice  scores  1.4, 
the  journeyman.  2.6,  and  the  experts, 
4.0.  The  question  just  described  in 
which  there  is  a  gradual  increase  in 
difficulty  as  we  pass  from  class  to 
class  is  of  course  never  obtained.  It 
is,  however,  from  certain  points  of 
view  the  ideal  question,  but,  like  most 
ideal  things,  is  rarely  found.  Types 
of  questions  which  approximate  more 
or  less  closely  to  this,  are,  however, 
of  common  occurrence.  In  Figs.  2  to 
9  typical  curves  for  single  answers  are 
given.  These  curves  represent  various 


QUESTION    No.    5 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

2 

8 

16 

19 
/ 

3 

/ 

2 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

0 

Av. 

.4 

1.6 

3.2 

3.8 

Fig.  2. 


types  of  questions.    The  curve  in  Fig.  2  indicates  that  this  particu- 
lar question  approximates  very  closely  to  the  ideal  type  where 


QUESTION    No.    1 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

0 

17 

18 

19 

3 

/ 

2 

/ 

1 

/ 

0 

/ 

Av. 

0 

3.4 

3.6 

3.8 

QUESTION    No.    18 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

20 

2 

14 

19 
/ 

3 

1 

2 

1 

1 

/ 

0 

-> 

^ 

Av. 

0 

.4 

2.8 

3.8 

Fig.  3. 


Fig.  4. 


there  is  a  gradual  increase  of  difficulty  from  group  to  group. 
Question  5  is  a  "trade  question,"  so-called,  because  it  differen- 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  101 

tiates  very  strongly  between  novice  and  tradesman.     It  does 
not,  however,  serve  to  differentiate,  in  any  very  high  degree, 


QUESTION    No.    10 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

0 

0 

6 

16 

3 

/ 

2 

/ 

/ 

1 

/ 

0 

.y 

Av. 

0 

0 

1.2 

3.2 

QUESTION    No.    25 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

6 

18 

r 

20 
V 

18 
X 

3 

1 

2 

/ 

1 

/ 

0 

Av. 

1.2 

3.6 

4.0 

3.6 

Fig.  5- 


Fig.  6. 


between  apprentice,  journeyman  and  expert.  Question  i  is  an 
example  of  an  " apprentice- journeyman  question/'  so-called, 
because  it  differentiates  sharply  be- 
tween the  novice  and  apprentice  class 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  journeyman 
and  expert  group  on  the  other. 

Question  10  is  distinctly  an  "  expert 
question,"  its  most  marked  differentia- 
tion being  between  the  journeyman 
and  expert  class.  Question  25  shows 
a  rather  high  novice  score  and  no 
differentiation  between  apprentice, 
journeyman  and  expert;  in  fact  the 
experts  are  distinctly  inferior  to  the 
journeymen.  For  this  reason  such  a 


QUESTION    No.    30 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

2 

1 

7 

7 

3 

2 

1 

/- 

0 

•—-  - 

_-/ 

Av. 

.4 

.2 

1.4 

1.4 

Fig.  7- 


question  must  be  rejected.     Question  30  is,  of  course,  much  too 
difficult,  even  for  the  journeymen  and  experts.     It  does  not 


102 


TRADE    TESTS 


differentiate  sufficiently  between  the  four  classes.  Questions  of 
this  kind  cannot  be  used.  Question  31  is  of  interest;  here  the 
experts  as  a  group  fall  distinctly  below  the  journeymen.  For  this 
reason  such  questions  must  be  avoided.  Question  42  shows  no 
differentiation  between  the  novice  and  the  apprentice  and  the 
small  rise  in  the  curve  indicates  that  the  question  was  distinctly 
too  hard  for  the  journeymen  and  experts.  Even  in  the  expert 
group  only  one  man  in  four  was  able  to  answer  it. 

Questions  of  the  first  five  types  may  be  employed  in  the  final 


QUESTION    No.    31 

N 

A 

J 

E 

4 

3 

7 

19 

A 

14 

3 

/ 

\ 

2 

/ 

1 

/ 

/ 

0 

Av. 

.6 

1.4 

3.8 

2.8 

QUESTION    No.    42 

N 

A 

j 

E 

4 

0 

b 

3 

4 

3 

2 

1 

s  —  ! 

«-•  • 

0 

-/ 

Av. 

0 

0 

.6 

.8 

Fig.  8. 


Fig.  9. 


examination.  It  has  been  indicated  that  each  kind  of  question 
has  its  value  in  the  test.  The  main  requirement  is  that  the 
tendency  of  the  curve  should  be  upward,  but  it  is  by  no  means 
necessary  that  it  should  approximate  to  the  straight  line.  Such 
a  linear  relationship  between  score  on  question  and  trade  status 
is,  in  many  cases,  not  to  be  expected.  In  fact  it  may  be  very 
desirable  to  construct  questions  which  do  not  show  such  a  rela- 
tionship. When  it  is  necessary,  for  example,  to  differentiate 
sharply  between  journeymen  and  experts,  the  question  which 
shows  little  differentiation  between  novice,  apprentice  and 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  103 

journeyman,  but  showing  a  rapid  rise  when  the  expert  class  is 
reached,  is  of  great  value/  Questions  where  there  is  a  distinct 
line  of  cleavage  between  the  various  groups  must  be  selected 
to  form  a  proper  balance;  that  is,  if  we  select  a  question  pri- 
marily because  it  differentiates  between  novice  and  apprentice, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  differentiation  between  journeyman 
and  expert  is  small,  we  must  take  care  that  balancing  questions 
are  introduced  which  differentiate  sharply  between  the  two  last- 
named  classes.  /It  will  be  remembered  that  a  cursory  examina- 
tion of  the  collected  answers  quite  apart  from  any  statistical 
study,  eliminated  some  of  the  questions. /For  all  questions  not 
so  eliminated,  the  graphs  were  drawn  by  the  method  described 
above.  A  detailed  study  of  these  graphs  eliminated  for  the 
reasons  given  above  a  further  number  of  questions.  The  re- 
mainder were  then  combined  into  the  final  form  of  the  test.  The 
only  process  which  is  left  for  description  is  that  of  the  calibration 
of  the  test. 

Calibration  of  the  Test 

When  the  final  selection  of  questions  has  been  made,  the 
only  problem  that  remains  is  that  of  establishing  the  standards 
which  shall  be  considered  characteristic  of  the  expert,  journey- 
man, apprentice  and  novice  classes.  Using  the  physical  analogy, 
the  process  is  commonly  called  "calibrating"  the  test.  Usually 
in  the  army  the  final  test  consisted  of  fifteen  to  twenty  ques- 
tions. This,  however,  is  a  purely  arbitrary  number  chosen  for 
purposes  of  speed  in  assembly  and  ease  in  administration. 
What  was  required  of  the  army  instrument  was  primarily  speed. 
There  is  no  reason  why  fifteen  to  twenty  questions  should  not 
be  replaced  by  forty  or  fifty  questions,  if  such  an  addition  fur- 
nishes valuable  information  with  regard  to  the  trade  standing 
of  the  workman. 


104  TRADE    TESTS 

The  problem  of  calibrating  the  test  would  be  an  easy  one  if 
the  following  two  conditions  were  fulfilled. 

1.  If  the  classifications  of  the  eighty  men  tested  were  per- 
fectly accurate  indices  of  each  man's  total  trade  ability. 

2.  If  at  each  level  of  trade  ability  there  was  a  distinct  stand- 
ard of  performance,  wHh  no  overlapping  of  the  various  groups. 
Neither  of  these  conditions  was,  however,  fulfilled.     It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  classification  into  the  four  levels  of 
ability  was  based  on  rather  arbitrary  standards.     It  depended 
on  a  combination  of  length  of  experience,  type  of  work  done, 
general  intelligence,  and  a  foreman's  rating.     In  general  the 
classification  was  reasonably  reliable.     It  was  certainly  accu- 
rate enough  to  serve  as  a  very  good  test  of  the  trade  test  itself. 
It  could  not  be  expected,  however,  that  the  ratings  would  be 
perfectly  objective.    We  should  expect  to  find  that  a  few  men 
rated  as  high  class  journeymen  might  well  belong,  if  rated  per- 
fectly accurately,  to  the  expert  class.    Similarly,  it  might  easily 
happen  that  a  man  was  rated  as  an  expert,  where  an  omniscient 
rating  would  have  placed  him  in  the  journeyman  class.     The 
same  is  true  of  all  the  divisions  with  the  exception  of  the  novice. 
What  constitutes  the  novice  in  a  trade  is  fairly  objective. 

Again,  even  if  the  men  were  correctly  classified  according  to 
their  trade  standing,  we  should  still  expect  to  find  overlapping 
in  the  achievement  of  the  various  levels.  It  might  be  expected 
that  a  young,  ambitious  journeyman  of,  say,  two  years  full 
standing  in  his  trade,  who  could  by  no  chance  be  rated  as  an 
expert,  might  well  outrank  a  tradesman  who  was  classified  as 
an  expert  largely  because  of  extreme  skill  in  one  operation,  or 
on  account  of  ability  as  a  foreman  which,  in  the  last  analysis, 
was  due  rather  to  power  over  men  than  to  high  trade  ability. 

These  two  considerations  would  make  us  rather  expect  a 
small  overlapping  in  the  performances  of  the  various  groups. 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  105 

When  imperfection  exists  in  the  rating  of  the  tradesman,  as 
apprentice,  journeyman  or  expert,  the  more  accurate  the  trade 
test,  the  more  certain  would  be  overlapping.  What  has  been 
said,  however,  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  we  cannot  meas- 
ure the  efficiency  of  a  trade  test  by  the  extent  to  which  it  differ- 
entiates the  tradesmen  at  the  three  known  levels  of  ability.  In 
the  large  majority  of  cases,  it  must  show  that  the  greater  num- 
ber of  men  are  placed  by  their  score  in  the  trade  test  at  a  level 
corresponding  to  their  estimated  ability  in  the  trade,  but  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  all  men  will  be  rated  by  their  score  in 
the  test  at  their  real  trade  level.  An  occasional  exception  to  a 
general  rule  is  bound  to  occur;  the  theory  of  statistics  teaches 
us  not  to  be  daunted  by  such  exceptions,  and  provides  a  method 
whereby  the  correct  weight  can  be  given  to  the  exception.  Each 
question  in  the  test  was  allowed  four  points.  On  this  basis, 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  determine  how  many  points  indicate 
an  expert,  how  many  a  journeyman,  how  many  an  apprentice, 
and  how  many  a  novice.  Obviously  the  way  to  do  this  is  to 
note  how  many  points  were  scored  by  the  men  who  were  rated 
experts  in  the  trade  when  they  were  tested;  similarly  the  num- 
ber of  points  scored  by  the  journeyman,  apprentice  and  novice 
so  rated.  The  manner  in  which  this  information  concerning 
the  scores  of  each  man  was  collected  graphically  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  figure.  The  base  line  shows  the  scores  on 
the  test,  varying  from  zero  to  eighty,  eighty  being  the  maximum 
on  the  basis  of  four  points  for  each  of  the  twenty  questions. 
The  apprentices,  journeymen  and  experts  are  then  arranged 
separately  on  four  distribution  curves,  each  black  square  repre- 
senting one  man's  position  in  the  test,  or  his  score.  According 
to  the  different  vertical  levels  it  is  known  to  which  class  this 
individual  belongs.  A  glance  at  this  table  shows  that  the  ex- 
perts as  a  group  score  higher  than  the  journeymen,  and  the 


106 


TRADE    TESTS 


journeymen  higher  than  the  apprentices.  As  was  to  be  expected, 
however,  a  few  of  the  experts  are  as  low  as  some  of  the  journey- 
men. The  extent  of  the  overlapping  is  brought  out  very 
clearly  by  the  graph.  When  a  diagram  such  as  the  typical  one 
above  has  been  constructed  for  each  test,  the  problem  is  to 
draw  the  dividing  lines  between  the  various  classes,  so  that  the 
overlapping  shall  be  a  minimum.  The  method  of  determining 
the  position  of  these  dividing  lines  is  that  of  "trial  and  error." 
Imaginary  lines  are  drawn  at  several  places,  and  that  line  is 


This  chart  shows  the  distribution  according  to  individual  total 
scores  of  the  80  subjects  used  in  standardization.  Each  square 
represents  one  man.  The  limits  shown  are  the  ones  finally  used 
in  army  testing. 

chosen  which  places  the  maximum  number  of  men,  according 
to  their  score  in  the  test,  in  their  correct  known  trade  classifica- 
tion. Thus,  for  example,  placing  the  dividing  line  between 
novice  and  apprentice  at  19  makes  the  critical  score  of  the 
novice  group  such  that  it  included  every  novice  that  is  tested. 
Only  one  out  of  the  twenty  apprentices,  under  these  conditions, 
fell  within  the  limits  of  score  of  the  novice  group.  Similarly 
placing  the  point  of  differentiation  between  the  journeyman  and 
apprentice  class  at  44,  rated  one  apprentice  as  a  journeyman  on 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  107 

the  test,  and  three  journeymen  were  rated  as  high  apprentices. 
The  differentiating  line  between  journeyman  and  expert  being 
placed  at  68  correctly  classified  sixteen  of  the  experts  and  only 
altered  the  journeyman  rating  of  one  of  the  tradesmen.  When 
these  "critical  scores,"  as  they  are  usually  called,  were  estab- 
lished, the  test  was  ready  for  final  assembly  and  printing. 

Final  Assembly  of  Test 

Other  things  being  equal  it  is  advisable  to  arrange  the  ques- 
tions in  the  test  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty.  This  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  establishing,  by  starting  with  easy  questions, 
the  confidence  of  the  person  under  examination,  even  though 
he  may  be  an  expert,  while  in  the  case  of  the  apprentice,  it  pre- 
vents discouragement  due  to  early  contact  with  questions  which 
are  quite  outside  his  range  of  information. 

It  has  already  been  made  clear  that  no  alteration  in  the  form 
of  the  question  during  this  final  assembly  is  permissible.  Even 
the  smallest  verbal  alteration  can  change  the  difficulty  of  a 
question  sufficiently  to  make  restandarization  necessary.  In  a 
previous  section  it  has  been  mentioned  that  even  after  the  final 
testing  has  taken  place,  it  is  possible,  providing  the  necessary 
remarking  is  done;  to  alter  the  answer,  but  when  the  critical 
scores  have  been  established  on  the  basis  of  these  altered  answers, 
no  further  changes  are  feasible.  The  matter  becomes  merely 
clerical,  and  any  modification  invalidates  the  accuracy  of  the 
test. 

The  following  tests  taken  from  various  fields,  including  among 
others  the  building,  electrical,  foundry  and  machinist  trades, 
are  reproduced  to  illustrate  the  wide  application  of  this  method 
of  examination: 

Bricklayer.     General. 

Pipe  Fitter.     General  (Low  pressure;. 


108  TRADE    TESTS 

Pipe  Fitter.     Plumber  (General). 

Structural  Steel  Worker.     Iron  Worker,  Erector. 

Electrician.     Generator  and  Switchboard  Tender  (D.  C.). 

Lineman  and  Cableman.    Telegraph  and  Telephon 

Foundryman.     Cupola  Tender. 

Foundryman.    Brass  Melter. 

Machinist  and  Mechanic.    Automatic  Screw  Machine  Operator. 

Machinist  and  Mechanic.    Die  Sinker. 

Blacksmith.    Drop  Forger. 

Butcher. 

Instrument  Maker  and  Repairer.     Typewriter  (Remington). 

Printer.     Compositor. 

Surveyor.     General. 

Tailor. 

Telegrapher  and  Wireless  Operator.     Radio  Operator. 

Welder.    Cutter.     (Oxy-Acetylene  Operator.) 


AN    ORAL   TRADE   TEST  109 

TRADE  TEST 
BRICKLAYER.  —  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.  What  are  headers  used  for  in  a  brick  wall? 

A.    To  bind  (bond)  (tie).  Score  4 

QUESTION  2 

Q.  What  is  half  of  a  brick  called? 

A.    Bat.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.   What  is  used  in  the  middle  of  a  long  wall  to  keep  the  line  level? 
A.    Twig  (twigger)  (twigging)  (tingle).  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   In  coming  to  a  height  if  there  is  a  course  of  brick  difference  in 

the  level,  what  do  you  call  it? 

A.   Hog.  Score  4 

QUESTION  5 

Q.  What  is  a  brick  called  when  set  on  end? 

A.    Soldier.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  do  you  call  a  course  of  brick  laid  lengthwise  of  a  wall? 
A.    Stretchers.  Score  4 


110  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION  7 

Q.  What  is  a  bond  called  when  a  header  and  stretcher  are  laid  in 

the  same  course? 

A.    Flemish.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  top  course  of  stone  on  a  wall? 
A.    Coping.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.  What  is  a  brick  called  when  cut  in  half  lengthwise? 
A.    Soap  (King).  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   In  setting  a  sill  course  how  much  pitch  do  you  give  it? 
A.    I  to  f  inch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.  How  do  you  tie-in  the  front  work  of  a  building  in  plain  bond 
work  if  you  have  no  metal  ties? 

A.    (i)  Clip  (clip  course).  Score  4 

(2)  Blind  (secret)  header.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  What  is  a  brick  called  when  set  on  the  narrow  edge? 
A.    Rowlock.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  bond  when  you  have  a  course  of  headers 
first,  then  a  course  of  stretchers,  and  then  another  course  of 
headers? 

A.    (i)  English.  Score  4 

(2)  Dutch.  Score^ 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  is  the  course  called  from  which  an  arch  starts? 
A.    (i)  Spring  (springer)  (springing  course).      .  Score  4 

(2)  Skew-back.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  111 

QUESTION   15 

Q.   How  do  you  get  your  courses  uniform? 

A.    (i)  Story  (gauge)  rod.  Score  4 

(2)  Story  (coursing)  pole.  Score  4 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

12  and  below N 

13  and  14 A  — 

15  to  41  inclusive A 

42  and  43 A  + 

44  and  45 J  - 

46  to  50  inclusive J 

51  and  52 J  + 

53  and  above ' E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


112  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
PIPE  FITTER.  —  General.    Low  Pressure  Heating 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF   PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.   How  can  a  very  short  nipple  be  cut  with  a  die? 
A.    (i)  Use  chuck  (nipple-holder).  Score  4 

(2)  Reverse  the  die.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   When  ordering  a  reducing  tee,  what  is  the  right  way  to  give  the 

size  of  outlets? 

A.    (i)  a.  Run  first.  Score  4 

b.  Side  (branch)  (bull-head)  last. 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   Name  all  the  sizes  of  wrought  iron  pipes  up  to  and  including  six 
inches. 

A.    i  i,  f,  I,  f,  i,  i|,  i|,  2,  2|,  3,  3!,  4,  4,  5,  6.  Score  4 

Note:  Take  off  one  point  for  each  one  omitted  or  wrong. 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  What  is  the  standard  push  nipple  or  slip  nipple  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Radiators.  Score  4 

(2)  Boilers  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  113 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  pressure  in  a  low-pressure  heating  system? 
A.    (i)  i  to  10.  Score  4 

(2)  i  to  20.  Score  2 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  When  exhaust  steam  is  used  for  heating  purposes,  what  takes 

the  grease  and  oil  out  of  the  steam? 
A.    Extractor  (separator).  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  Name  two  ways  that  water  of  condensation  is  returned  to  the 
boilers  in  large  plants  where  high-pressure  boilers  are  used. 
A.  Pumps 

Traps. 

Injectors. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
QUESTION  8 

Q.  How  does  a  direct-indirect  radiator  differ  from  a  direct  radiator? 
A.    (i)  a.  Direct-indirect  heats  air  from  outside.  Score  4 

b.  Direct  heats  air  in  the  room. 


QUESTION  9 

Q.  What  is  the  difference  between  dry  returns  and  wet  returns? 
A.    (i)  a.  Dry  above  water  line.  Score  4 

b.  Wet  below  water  line. 


QUESTION   10 

Q.  What  is  the  least  allowable  fall  between  the  lowest  point  on  a 
steam  main  and  the  water  line  of  a  boiler  in  a  small  heating 
system? 

A.    10  to  24  inches.  Score  4 


uf 

Enfant  Jauium  »«!* 


114  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   11 

Q.  Name  two  kinds  of  coils  made  from  pipe. 
A.    Mitre. 

Manifold  (header). 

Corner. 

Return  bends. 

Any  two,  Score  4 

RATING   THE-  CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

8  and  below N 

9  and  10 A  — 

ii  to  26  inclusive A 

27  and  28 A  + 

29  and  30 : J  — 

31  to  39  inclusive J 

40  and  41  — J  -f- 

42  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  inserted  to  provide  the  examiner  with  a  means 
of  guarding  against  the  candidate's  coaching  for  the  examination. 
The  Supplementary  Questions  should  be  used  only  when  necessary. 
Not  all  of  these  questions  should  be  asked  any  one  tradesman. 

QUESTION  A 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  distance  apart  of  pipe  hangers? 
A.    (i)  8  to  10  feet.  Score  4 

(2)  5  to  12  feet.  Score  2 

QUESTION  B 

Q.  How  is  the  contraction  and  expansion  of  long  straight  runs  of 

pipe  taken  care  of? 

A.    (i)  Expansion  (slip)  joint.  Score  4 

(2)  Expansion  bend  (loop).  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  115 

QUESTION  C 

Q.   What  fitting  is  used  to  make  a  short  elbow  connection? 

A.    Street  (service)  elbow  ("ell").  Score  4 

QUESTION  D 

Q.  What  is  a  feed  water  heater  used  for? 

A.    To  heat  water  for  the  boiler.  Score  4 


116  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
PIPE  FITTER.  —  Plumber,  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  is  used  in  making  joints  in  cast-iron  soil  pipes? 
A.    Oakum  and  lead.  Score  4 

QUESTION  2 

Q.   What  do  you  use  in  bending  lead  pipe? 

A.    (i)  Spring.  Score  4 

(2)  Sand.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  are  the  proportions  of  metal  in  the  two  kinds  of  solder 

used  by  a  plumber? 

A.    (i)  a.  About  2  parts  of  tin  to  3  of  lead  (about  40-60).      Score  4 
b.  Equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead  (half  and  half)  (50-50). 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  What  are  the  two  good  types  of  water  closet? 
A.    (i)  a.  Syphon  jet.  Score  4 

b.  Wash  down  (syphon)  (flush). 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   On  what  kinds  of  pipe  do  you  get 

a.  hub  or  bell-and-spigot  ends? 

b.  threaded  ends? 

A.    (i)  a.  Cast  iron  (soil).  Score  4 

b.  Wrought  iron  (brass)  (steel). 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  117 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  are  air  chambers  used  for? 

A.    (i)  Prevent  (stop)  hammering  (pounding).  Score  4 

(2)  Prevent  pipes  getting  air-bound.  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   How   should   the   connection   be    made    between   a   galvanized 

wrought-iron  pipe  and  a  lead  pipe? 

A.    (i)  a.  Brass  nipple  Score  4 

b.  Wiped  joint. 

QUESTION  8 

Q.  What  pipe  takes  care  of  water  closet  discharge  connection? 
A.    Soil  stack  (pipe).  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   Why  is  a  four-inch  soil  pipe  better  than  a  larger  one  for  an  ordi- 
nary house? 
A.    Scours  (cleans)  (washes)  better.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  is  an  expansion  joint  used  for? 

A.    (i)  Allow  for  expansion.  Score  4 

(2)  Allow  for  contraction.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   (1)  a.  What  is  the  proper  point  at  which  to  attach  a  back  vent 
pipe  to  a  vent  stack? 

b.  Give  reason. 
A.    (i)  a.  Above  the  fixtures  (from  crown  of  trap).  Score  4 

b.  So  vent  cannot  act  as  waste  pipe. 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  Why  are  compression  faucets  preferable  to  self-closing  faucets 

or  fuller  faucets? 

A.    (i)  Prevent  water  hammers  (pounding).  Score  4 

(2)  Prevent  breaking  of  pipe.  Score  4 


118  TRADE    TESTS 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

9  and  below N 

10  and  ii A  — 

12  to  31  inclusive A 

32  and  33 ' A  + 

34  and  35 J  - 

36  to  42  inclusive J 

43  and  44 J  + 

45  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  inserted  to  provide  the  examiner  with  a  means 
of  guarding  against  the  candidate's  coaching  for  the  examination. 
The  Supplementary  Questions  should  be  used  only  when  necessary. 
Not  all  of  these  questions  should  be  asked  any  one  tradesman. 

QUESTION   A 

Q.   What  fall  should  be  given  to  house  drains  under  the  cellar  floor? 
A.    |  inch  to  the  foot.  Score  4 

QUESTION   B 

Q.  What  is  used  for  soldering  galvanized  iron  or  steel? 

A.    Muriatic  acid  killed  (cut)  with  zinc.  Score  4 

QUESTION   C 

Q.   How  can  the  seal  of  a  trap  be  protected  against  siphonage? 

A.    Venting  (ventilation).  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  119 


TRADE  TEST 

STRUCTURAL  STEEL  WORKER.  - 
Iron  Worker,  Erector 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  is  a  dolly  bar  used  for? 

A.    Bucking  up  rivets.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   Why  is  a  snap  used  in  a  riveting  hammer? 

A.    To  form  the  head  on  the  rivet.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  should  be  done  if  there  are  bad  holes  in  steel? 
A.    Ream  them.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  do  you  call  putting  lines  through  blocks? 
A.    Reaving.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   Name  two  knots  you  can  use  to  tie  the  ends  of  lines  together  to 

make  a  safe  hitch.  " 

A.    Two  bowlines. 

A  bowline  and  two  half  hitches. 
Square  (hard)  (flat)  knot. 
Fisherman's  bend. 

Any  two,  Score  4 


120  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   Name  two  tools  used  for  shearing  off  rivet  heads  on  heavy  work. 
A.    Buster. 
Cutter. 

B  &  O  Punch. 
Chisel  bar. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
QUESTION    7 

Q.  Name  two  tools  used  for  bucking  up  rivets  where  you  cannot 

get  a  straight  tool  in. 
A.    Offset  bar. 

Goose  neck  dolly. 
Spring  dolly. 
Jam  dolly. 
Club  dolly. 
Heel  dolly. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  standard  stock  should  be  used  for  driving  three-quarter- 
inch  rivets  into  one  inch  to  one  and  five-eighths  inch  metal? 
A.    One  and  three-eighths  to  one  and  seven-eighths  inch.        Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  way  to  reave  up  a  set  of  triple  blocks  for  a 

heavy  load? 

A.    From  the  center.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  is  the  name  of  the  single  sheave  block  opening  at  the  hook? 
A.    Snatch  (gate)  (foot)  block.  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.  What  is  the  name  of  a  boom  which  is  attached  to  the  side  of  a 
building,  reaved  from  top  of  boom  to  building,  and  swung  on 
a  pivot? 

A.    Chicago.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  121 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

8  and  below N 

9  and  10 A  — 

ii  to  27  inclusive A 

28  and  29 A  + 

30  and  31-. J  - 

32  to  37  inclusive J 

38  and  39 J  + 

40  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 

SUPPLEMENTARY    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  inserted  to  provide  the  examiner  with  a  means 
of  guarding  against  the  candidate's  coaching  for  the  examination. 
The  Supplementary  Questions  should  be  used  only  when  necessary. 
Not  all  of  these  questions  should  be  asked  any  one  tradesman. 

QUESTION  A 

Q.   What  are  drift  pins  used  for? 

A.    (i)  Fairing  (pinning)  (lining)  holes.  Score  4 

(2)  Making  holes  good.  Score  4 

QUESTION   B 

Q.   What  is  a  B  &  O  Punch  used  for? 

A.    Backing  out.  Score  4 

QUESTION  C 

Q.  What  is  an  "  Old  Man  "  used  for? 

A.    Drilling  holes.  Score  4 

QUESTION   D 

Q.   When  you  are  reaving  up  a  set  of  falls  what  kind  of  a  knot  do 

you  end  with  to  bring  the  blocks  together? 
A.    (0  Becket.  Score  4 

(2)  Bowline.  Score  4 

(3)  Two  half  hitches.  Score  4 


122  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 

ELECTRICIAN.  —  Generator  and  Switchboard 
Tender,  Direct  Current  (D.C.) 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.  How  are  commutator  coils  fastened  to  commutator  bars? 

A.    Soldered.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.  What  do  you  use  to  seat  a  brush? 

A.    (i)  Sandpaper.  Score  4 

(2)  Emery  paper.  Score  o 

QUESTION   3 

Q.  How  are  commutator  bars  insulated? 

A.   Mica  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  How  is  the  oil  supplied  to  the  bearings  of  a  motor  from  the  well? 
A.    (i)  Ring.  Score  4 

(2)  Chain.  Score  4 

QUESTION  5 

Q.  What  is  used  in  place  of  a  fuse  to  break  the  current  in  case  of  an 

over-load? 

A.    (i)  Circuit  breaker.  Score  4 

(2)  Automatic  breaker.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  123 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  are  the  large  copper  bars  called  which  are  placed  behind 

the  switchboard? 

A.    Bus  (bus-bar).  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  What  are  the  three  kinds  of  D.C.  motors? 

A.    (i)  a.  Series.  Score  4 

b.  Shunt. 

c.  Compound. 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   How  should  the  air  space  be  equalized  if  unequal? 

A.    (i)  Re-babbit  (true  up  bearings)  (line  up  bearings).  Score  4 

(2)  Reset  magnet  frame  (pole  pieces).  Score  4 

(3)  Shim  up  pillar  blocks.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   How  do  you  find  the  neutral  point  of  brushes  in  a  motor  when  it 

is  running? 
A.    By  shifting  rocker  ring  (holder)  (yoke)  until  sparking  at  brushes 

is  least.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.  What  would  you  do  to  cut  out  a  coil  of  a  D.C.  armature  in  an 
emergency? 

A.    (i)  Use  a  jumper.  Score  4 

(2)  Bridge  (short-circuit)  commutator.  Score  4 

(3)  Bridge  (short-circuit)  coil.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  the  usual  purpose  of  a  rotary  converter? 

A.    (i)  To   change   alternating   current    (A.C.)    to   direct  current 

(D.C.).                                                                     <",  Score  4 

(2)  To   change   direct   current    (D.C.)    to   alternating  current 

(A.C.).                                                                   ~  Score  4 


124  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  What  is  used  between  two  or  more  compound  generators  operat- 
ing in  parallel  to  take  care  of  the  difference  in  voltage? 
A.    Equalizer.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.  What  kinds  of  field  coils  has  a  compound  motor? 
A.    (i)  a.  Series.  Score  4 

b.  Shunt. 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  horsepower  is  generated  by  a  400  K.W.  generator? 

A.    (i)  400000  divided  by  (over)  746.  Score  4 

(2)  About  535.  Score  4 

(3)  1 1  times  the  K.W.  (kilowatts).  Score  4 

QUESTION    15 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  magnetism  which  remains  in  the  poles  after 

the  field  current  is  shut  off? 

A.    Residual.  Score  4 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   How  do  you  increase  the  magnetism  of  the  poles  in  a  shunt- 
wound  generator? 

A.    (i)  Cut-out  resistance  (rheostat).  Score  4 

(2)  Increase  field  strength  (current  in  field).  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

1 2  and  below N 

13  and  14 A  — 

15  to  28  inclusive A 

29  and  30 A  + 

31  and  32 J  - 

33  to  55  inclusive J 

56  and  57 J-f 

58  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  — or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  125 


TRADE  TEST 

LINEMAN   AND   CABLEMAN.  —  Cableman, 
Telegraph  and  Telephone 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  is  put  over  a  connection  of  two  wires  in  a  cable  where 

they  are  spliced? 

A.    Sleeve  (tube)  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  is  the  ordinary  insulation  on  the  wires  in  a  telephone  or 

telegraph  cable? 

A.    Paper.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.   What  kind  of  a  lead  sleeve  is  used  when  it  is  impossible  to  slide 

the  sleeve  back  on  the  cable? 
A.    Split.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  is  the  "  V  "-shaped  tool  called  which  is  used  for  cleaning 

lead  sleeves  and  cables? 
A.    Shave-hook.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  If  the  metal  is  too  fine  how  do  you  thicken  it? 

A.   Lead  (sleeve).  Score  4 


126  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION  6 

Q.  What  is  the  joint  called  where  two  cables  are  spliced  into  one? 

A.    "Y"  (multiple).  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   What  distance  should  a  lead  sleeve  overlap  the  end  of  a  cable 

sheath  when  a  splice  is  made? 

A.    i£  to  2  inches.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  is  put  around  a  sleeve  and  sheath  so  that  the  wipe  joint 

will  have  an  even  end? 
A.    Paster  (gum-paper)  (sticker).  Score  4 

QUESTION  9 

Q.   What  is  the  largest  gauge  wire  used  in  cables? 
A.    10  to  14.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   From  what  two  materials  are  insulation  sleeves  made? 
A.    (i)  a.  Paper.  Score  4 

b.  Cloth  (cotton). 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  done  to  a  cloth  before  it  is  wrapped  around  a  joint? 
A.    Boiled.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   How  much  larger  hi  diameter  should  the  lead  sleeve  be  than 

the  cable  in  a  straight  splice? 
A.    |  of  an  inch  to  i  inch.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   What  do  you  use  to  get  the  metal  on  an  upright  joint? 
A.    Stick  (paddle).  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  is  a  Megger  used  for? 

A.    Testing  (measuring)  insulation.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  127 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   What  flux  is  used  for  soldering  cables? 

A.    (i)  Stearic  acid  (styrene).  Score  4 

(2)  Sperm.  Score  4 

(3)  Tallow  (candle).  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  .       Rating 

24  and  below N 

25  and  26 A  — 

27  to  37  inclusive A 

38  and  39 A  + 

40  and  41 J  — 

42  to  50  inclusive J 

51  and  52 ^M1:1; /??!..  . .  J  +       * 

53  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


128  TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 
FOUNDRYMAN.  —  Cupola  Tender 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.  What  is  the  bottom  lined  with? 

A.    Sand.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.  What  do  you  do  to  the  material  as  soon  as  the  bottom  is  dropped? 
A.    Wet  (put  water  on).  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.  What  is  done  to  the  bottom  when  all  the  iron  has  been  run  out? 
A.    Drop  (knock  out).  Score  4 

QUESTION  4 

Q.  What  do  you  tap  a  cupola  with? 

A.    Bar  (rod).  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  How  long  is  it  before  good  iron  comes  down  after  the  blast  is 

turned  on? 
A.    15  to  35  minutes.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  holds  up  the  bottom  doors? 

A.    Bar  (rod)  (prop).  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  129 


QUESTION   7 

Q.   Why  do  you  use  lime-stone  in  melting? 

A.    (i)  Make  run  (fluid)  (clean  iron).  Score  4 

(2)  Flux.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  tool  do  you  use  for  chipping  out  a  furnace  in  the  morning? 
A.    Pick  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.  What  is  usually  used  in  kindling  a  furnace  besides  wood? 
A.    (i)  Kerosene  (coal-oil)  Score  4 

(2)  Gas.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q,  What  might  happen  if  the  cupola  gases  got  in  the  blast  pipe? 
A.    Explode  (blow  up).  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   How  much  higher  should  the  bottom  sand  be  at  the  back  than  at 

the  front? 

A.    i  to  3  inches.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   What  is  the  thickness  of  the  lining  of  a  cupola? 

A.    6  to  9  inches.  Score  4 

QUESTION 

Q.   How  high  above  the  tuyeres  do  you  fill  with  coke? 

(Pronounced  tweers.) 
A.    1 8  to  30  inches.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.   If  the  tapping  hole  in  the  breast  is  too  long  what  will  happen? 
A.    Freeze  (chill)  (harden).  Score  4 


130       .  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   15 

Q.   What  are  the  tuyeres  fastened  to? 

(Pronounced  tweers). 
A.    (i)  Brick.  Score  4 

(2)  Wind-box.  Score  4 

(3)  Shell.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  are  the  ingredients  in  cast  iron  other  than  pure  iron? 

A.    (i)  a.  Silicon.  Score  4 

b.  Carbon. 

c.  Sulphur. 

d.  Phosphorus. 

e.  Manganese. 

Note:  Take  off  one  point  for  each  one  omitted  or  wrong. 
QUESTION    17 

Q .   What  will  happen  if  too  much  phosphorus  is  used? 
A.    (i)  Hard-spots.  Score  4 

(2)  Hard  (brittle).  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   Why  is  phosphorus  added  to  the  mixture? 

A.    Make  fluid  (run  easier)  (liquid).  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

1 6  and  below N 

17  and  18 A  — 

19  to  36  inclusive A 

37  and  38 A  + 

39  and  40 : J  — 

41  to  56  inclusive J 

57  and  58 J  + 

59  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  131 

TRADE  TEST 
FOUNDRYMAN.  —  Melter,  Brass 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.  What  will  happen  to  a  crucible  if  it  gets  wet  before  using? 

A.    Peel  (chip)  (break)  (explode).  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   If  bronze  scrap  is  hard  to  break  what  do  you  do  with  it? 
A.    Heat.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  What  is  the  opening  in  the  mold  called  where  the  metal  is  poured 

in? 

A.    (i)  Sprue.  Score  4 

(2)  Gate.  Score  4 

QUESTION  4 

Q.   Why  is  tin  added  to  a  brass  mixture? 

A.    Harden  (toughen).  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   What  is  put  on  top  of  the  molten  metal  to  keep  it  from  oxidizing? 

A.    Charcoal.  Score  4 

QUESTION  6 

Q.  What  will  happen  if  zinc  is  added  when  the  copper  is  too  hot? 

A.    (i)  Fuse  (burn).  Score  4 

(2)  Oxidize  (volatilize).  Score  4 


132  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  What  is  done  to  the  core  to  let  out  the  gas  when  pouring? 
A.    Vented.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.  What  is  a  crucible  made  of? 

A.    (i)  a.  Plumbago  (graphite)  (black  lead).  Score  4 

b.  Clay. 
Note:  Both  required.    No  partial  credits. 

QUESTION  9 

Q.  What  should  be  done  to  a  new  crucible  before  using? 
A.   Anneal.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.  In  a  bronze  mixture  of  eighty-five  and  three  fives  what  metals 

are  used  besides  copper? 
A.    (i)  a.  Zinc  (spelter).  Score  4 

b.  Lead. 

c.  Tin. 

Note:  All  required.    No  partial  credits. 

QUESTION    11 

Q.  What  percentage  of  tin  is  used  in  a  mixture  for  high  speed 

bearings? 

A.    10  to  16.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  What  is  the  percentage  of  tin  used  for  standard  government 

bronze? 

A.    10.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  percentage  of  lead  is  usually  used  in  a  yellow  brass  mixture? 

A.    i  to  3.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  How  much  metal  does  a  No.  40  pot  hold? 

A.    1 20  pounds.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  133 

QUESTION   15 

Q.  In  what  bronze  mixture  is  there  a  small  per  cent  of  iron? 
A.    Manganese.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  What  are  the  three  chief  ingredients  used  in  making  German 

silver? 
A.    (i)  a.  Copper.  Score  4 

b.  Zinc. 

c.  Nickel. 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

11  and  below N 

1 2  and  13 A  — 

14  to  22  inclusive A 

23  and  24 A  + 

25  and  26 J  — 

27  to  42  inclusive J 

43  and  44 J  + 

45  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


134  TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 

MACHINIST  AND   MECHANIC.  —  Automatic 
Screw  Machine  Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  AAjulanl  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   When  cutting  steel  where  you  want  a  high  finish  what  kind  of 

oil  is  used? 

A.    Lard-oil.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   On  what  kind  of  material  do  you  use  the  highest  spindle  speed? 

A.    Brass.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.  What  are  the  two  most  common  makes  of  automatic  screw 

machines? 

A.    Brown  &  Sharpe  (B  &  S). 
Cleveland. 
Gridley. 
Acme. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
QUESTION  4 

Q.   How  high  should  the  parting  tool  be  set  in  relation  to  the  stock? 

A.    Center.  Score  4 

QUESTION  6 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  drill  you  use  to  start  a  hole  with? 

A.    Spot  (centering)  (counter-sink).  Score  4 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  1S5 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  is  apt  to  be  the  result  if  there  is  not  enough  spring  tension 

in  the  chuck? 

A.    (i)  Not  release  (open).  Score  4 

(2)  Slip  (not  feed).  Score  4 

QUESTION  7 

Q.  How  many  spindles  are  there  on  Gridley  machines? 
A.    (i)  a.  i.  Score  4 

b.  4. 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  kind  of  a  die  do  you  use  when  the  work  spindle  does  not 

reverse? 
A.    Self -opening  (geometric)  (automatic).  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   How  much  material  should  be  left  for  grinding  after  hardening? 
A.    (i)  .005  to  .015.  Score  4 

(2)  A  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  kind  of  tool  is  used  to  cut  internal  grooves  in  the  side  of  a 

hole? 
A.    Recessing  (necking)  (swing).  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  is  the  first  thing  you  would  look  for  if  the  work  came  short? 
A.    (i)  Loose  feed-finger.  Score  4 

(2)  Loose  chuck.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  tool  should  be  used  when  the  stock  is  so  long  that 

it  will  not  stand  a  forming  cut? 

A.    (i)  Box.  Score  4 

(2)  Hollow-mill.  Score  4 


136  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  How  much  material  should  be  left  for  the  finishing  cut  when  the 
roughing  cut  has  been  made  by  a  box  tool  or  hollow-mill  in 
steel? 

A.  .005  to  .015.  Score  4 

QUESTION  14 

Q.  What  make  of  automatic  screw  machine  requires  a  special  set 

of  cams  for  each  job? 

A.    Brown  and  Sharpe.  Score  4 

QUESTION   15 

Q.  What  shape  of  cam  is  used  on  a  Brown  and  Sharpe? 

A.    Disk  (circular).  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   If  a  sharp  forming  tool  is  set  below  center  what  will  it  do? 
A.    Chatter.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.   When  a  die  or  thread  tool  cannot  be  used  what  do  you  use  to 

form  a  thread  in  the  rear  of  a  shoulder  when  working  brass? 

A.    Thread-roll  (roller-die).  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   What  kind  of  a  drill  do  you  use  for  brass  instead  of  a  twist  drill? 
A.    Straight  fluted  (farmer)  (flat)  (gun). 

QUESTION   19 

Q.  In  making  a  one-eighth  forty  fillister  head  screw,  what  size  in 

decimals  should  the  body  of  the  screw  be  before  threading? 

A.    .122  to  .125.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.  What  would  you  use  instead  of  a  hollow-mill  to  turn  a  part  of 

considerable  length? 
A.    Box  turner  (tool)  (mill).  Score  4 


AN   ORAL   TRADE    TEST  187 

SCORING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

19  and  below N 

20  and  21 A  — 

22  to  50  inclusive A 

51  and  52 A  + 

53  and  54 J  - 

55  to  67  inclusive J 

68  and  69 J  + 

70  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


138  TRADE   TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
MACHINIST  AND   MECHANIC.  —  Die  Sinker 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reprodttced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  will  happen  to  the  dies  if  they  are  overheated  and  cooled 

too  quickly? 

A.    Crack  (break).  Score  4 

QUESTION    2 

Q.   With  what  are  die  blanks  colored  for  laying  out  work? 

A.    Copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol)  (blue  stone)  (copperas).      Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  can  be  done  if  a  die  is  accidentally  cut  too  deep? 
A.    Plane  off  (cut  off).  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  What  machine  is  used  for  sinking  dies  of  irregular  shape? 

A.    Milling  (die  sinking)  (profiler).  Score  4 

QUESTION    5 

Q.  What  is  the  ordinary  draft  given? 

A.    7.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  Where  is  the  edger  located  on  a  die? 

A.    Side.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  139 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   What  machine  is  used  for  cutting  a  straight  groove  between  two 

deep  holes? 

A.    Shaper.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   What  is  used  on  a  type  to  see  if  it  is  bedded? 
A.    Blue.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  is  the  waste  metal  called  that  is  formed  around  the  forging? 

A.    Flash.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  is  the  end  of  the  forging  called  where  it  is  joined  to  the 

stock? 

A.    (i)  Gate.  Score  4 

(2)  Sprue.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  a  small  curved  file  called? 

A.    Riffler.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   How  much  per  inch  should  the  shrinkage  allowance  be  between 

a  drop  forging  and  the  die  for  trimming  the  forging  cold? 
A.    (i)  .012  to  .200  Score  4 

(2)  A-  to  A.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  finish  allowance  on  a  drop  forging? 
A.   7V  to  |  of  an  inch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  is  the  impression  in  the  die  called  which  is  used  just  before 

the  finishing  impression? 
A.    Blanking  (blocking)  (roughing).  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   How  is  the  die  laid  out  so  that  the  finished  forging  will  be  the 

right  size? 
A.    Shrinkage.  Score  4 


140  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  What  form  of  a  die  is  used  for  removing  the  flash? 
A.    Trimming.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.  In  making  a  forging  with  a  large  hump  on  one  side  why  is  the 

deepest  impression  in  the  top  die? 

A.    (i)  Forms  up  better  than  down  (fills  top  easier).  Score  4 

(2)  Keeps  free  from  scale.  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   How  is  a  die  cut  so  that  the  forging  will  not  stick? 
A.    Draft.  Score  4 

QUESTION   19 

Q.  What  is  used  for  packing  die  blocks  when  carbonizing? 

A.    (i)  Bone-dust.  Score  4 

(2)  Charred  leather.     •  f    •  Score '4 

(3)  Charcoal.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.  What  carbon  stee!  is  used  for  trimming  dies? 

A.    60  to  90.  Score  4 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

18  and  below. , N 

19  and  20 A  — 

21  to  47  inclusive A 

48  and  49   A  + 

50  and  51 J  — 

52  to  69  inclusive J 

70  and  71 J  + 

72  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  141 

TRADE  TEST 
BLACKSMITH.  —  Forger,  Drop 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  part  of  the  machine  that  holds  the  upper  die? 

A.    Head  (ram).  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.  What  keeps  the  upper  die  from  shifting  back  and  forth? 

A.    Dowel.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  plate  that  holds  the  bottom  die? 

A.    Shoe  (sow).  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.  What  keeps  the  hammer  from  falling  after  it  is  up? 
A.    (i)  Clamps.  Score  4 

(2)  Latches.  Score  4 

QUESTION  6 

Q.   What  would  happen  if  you  would  quench  chrome  vanadium  or 

nickle  steel  in  water,  at  a  high  heat? 

A.    (i)  Crack.  Score  4 

(2)  Break.  Score  4 

QUESTION  6 

Q.  What  is  the  waste  metal  called  that  is  formed  around  the  forging? 
A.   Flash  (fin).  Score  4 


142  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   7 
Q.   What  is  the  crack  or  seam  called  which  is  formed  by  a  fold  in 

the  forging? 
A.    Cold-shut.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   How  is  the  board  fastened  to  the  head? 

A.    Wedges.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  is  the  purpose  of  pickling  a  forging? 

A.    (i)  Remove  scale.  Score  4 

(2)  Detect  flaws  (cracks).  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.  What  raises  the  hammer? 

A.    (i)  Board.  Score  4 

(2)  Rolls  (spools).  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  the  impression  in  the  die   called  which  is  used  just 

before  the  finishing  impression? 
A.    Blanking  (blocking)  (roughing).  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  How  is  a  die  made  so  that  the  forging  will  not  stick? 
A.    (i)  Draft.  Score  4 

(2)  Degrees.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.   What  kind  cf  wood  is  the  board  made  of? 

A.    Maple.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.   What  is  the  end  of  the  forging  called  where  it  is  joined  to  the 

stock? 

A.    (i)  Gate.  Score  4 

(2)  Sprue.  Score  4 

(3)  Tong  hold.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  143 

QUESTION   15 

Q.  In 'making  a  forging  with  a  large  hump  on  one  side  why  is  the 

deepest  impression  in  the  top  die? 

A.    (i)  Forms  up  better  than  down  (fills  top  easier).  Score  4 

(2)  Keeps  free  from  scale.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   How  many  times  more  than  the  weight  of  the  hammer  should 

the  base  weigh? 
A.    15  to  20.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  -Rating 

18  and  below N 

i  * 

19  and  20 A  — 

21  to  37  inclusive A 

38  and  39 A  + 

40  and  41 *•»**. !  .  J  - 

42  to  55  inclusive J 

56  and  57 J  + 

58  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


144  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
BUTCHER.  —  Butcher 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.  From  what  part  are  pork  chops  usually  cut? 
A.    Loin.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   How  many  ribs  are  cut  to  a  rib  of  beef? 

A.    (i)  7.  Score  4 

(2)  8.  Score  4 

(3)  9-  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.  What  are  two  knives  which  a  butcher  uses? 
A.    (i)  a.  Steak  (cutting).  Score  4 

b.  Boning  (trimming). 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   From  what  part  of  the  hog  do  you  get  picnic  or  California  hams? 

A.    Shoulder.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   What  is  located  between  the  first  rib  and  the  hip? 
A.   Loin  (porterhouse).  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  is  the  average  weight  of  sweet-breads? 

A.    |  to  i  pound.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  145 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   From  what  is  tripe  made? 

A.    (i)  Stomach  (belly).  Score  4 

(2)  Paunch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.  From  what  part  of  a  hog  is  salt  pork  made? 
A.    Belly.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   How  many  ribs  are  left  on  a  chuck  of  beef? 
A.    (i)  4.  Score  4 

(2)  5.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.  What  is  the  average  weight  of  a  plate  from  a  500  pound  dressed 

steer? 

A.    20  to  40.-  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.  About  what  should  a  hind  quarter  of  a  500  pound  dressed  steer 

weigh? 

A.    no  to  130.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  should  a  ham  weigh  from  a  150  pound  dressed  hog,  trimmed 

to  pickle? 

A.    10  to  15.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  strip  of  fat  along  the  back  from  which  the 

loin  has  been  pulled? 

A.    Back  fat  (fat  back).  Score  4 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   What  is  the  average  weight  of  a  steer  liver? 
A.    9  to  12.  Score  4 

QUESTION    15 

Q.  What  is  the  part  of  a  beef  between  the  front  legs? 

A.    Brisket.  Score  4 


146  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  How  old  should  a  calf  be  before  it  is  butchered? 
A.    4  to  5  weeks.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.  What  do  you  call  a  calf  under  7  days  old? 

A.    Bob  (slunk).  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.  Where  is  the  cross  rib  located? 

A.    Shoulder  (fore-quarter).  Score  4 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

16  and  below N 

17  and  18 A  — 

19  to  44  inclusive A 

45  and  46 A  + 

47  and  48 J  - 

49  to  57  inclusive J 

58  and  59 J  + 

60  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL    TRADE    TEST  147 

TRADE  TEST 

INSTRUMENT  MAKER  AND   REPAIRER.  - 
Typewriter  Repairer 

(Remington) 
ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.   How  are  the  feed  rolls  cleaned? 

A.   Alcohol.  Score  4 

QUESTION    2 

Q.   How  many  feed  rolls  are  there  on  a  Remington  No.  10? 
A.    6.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   How  many  column  selector  keys  are  there  on  a  Remington  No.  10? 

A.    5.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  do  you  use  to  bend  a  type  bar? 

A.    A  nine-prongs.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  What  would  be  the  result  if  the  teeth  on  the  rack  would  not  mesh 

with  pinion  wheel? 
A   Skipping  (jumping)  (wrong  spacing).  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   How  are  bell  cranks  fastened  to  the  segment? 

A.    Screws.  Score  4 


148  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION  7 

Q.  How  is  type  fastened  to  type  bars  on  a  Remington  No.  10? 
A.    (i)  Pressed  in  (forced  in).  Score  4 

(2)  Squeezed  in.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   Name  the  different  standard  lengths  of  carriages  on  a  Remington 

No.  10. 
A.    (i)  a.  A  (7^)  (76  pica).  Score  4 

b.  B  (9i)  (95  pica). 

c.  C  (12)  (120  pica). 

d.  D  (16)  (160  pica). 


QUESTION  9 

Q.  What  are  metal  platens  made  of? 

A.    Brass.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  mechanism  is  inside  of  the  governor  cup? 

A.    (i)  a.  Fan  (propeller)  (paddle).  Score  4 

b.  Graphite. 

c.  Shot. 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  is  shown  by  the  small  marks  between  letters  on  the  face 

of  the  type? 
A.    Style  (name)  (size)  (kind)  of  type.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   How  many  teeth  are  there  in  a  regular  ratchet  head  on  a  Rem- 
ington No.  10? 

A.    29.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.   What  is  pitch  for  pica  type? 

A.    10.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  149 

QUESTION    14 

Q.    What  are  the  two  kinds  of  dogs  used  on  the  escapement  frame? 
A.    (i)  a.  Loose  (active).  Score  4 

b.  Rigid  (stationary). 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   What  style  pitch  is  used  on  an  elite  type  machine? 
A.    (i)  12.  Score  4 

(2)  i2f.  Score  4 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   What  separates  the  tabulator  blades? 

A.    Comb.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

12  and  below N 

13  and  14 A  — 

15  to  32  inclusive A 

33  and  34 A  + 

35  and  36 J  - 

37  to  50  inclusive J 

51  and  52 J  + 

53  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


150  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
PRINTER.  —  Compositor 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.   What  does  the  proof  reader's  w.f.  indicate? 
A.   Wrong  font.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  do  you  call  a  table  on  which  the  form  is  locked  up? 
A.    Stone.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  In  what  do  you  assemble  the  type  from  the  cases? 

A.    Stick.  Score  4 

QUESTION  4 

Q.   How  are  types  made  so  that  they  can  be  placed  in  the  stick  in 

the  proper  way? 

A.   Nicked.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.  What  do  you  use  to  get  the  type  perfectly  level  in  the  form? 

A.    Planer.  .  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  is  the  page  number  called? 

A.    Folio.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  151 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  What  space  is  generally  used  between  words? 
A.    3-em.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  machine  is  used  to  make  the  rule  corners  join  perfectly? 

A.    Mitering.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  word  do  you  use  in  proof-reading  to  show  that  a  portion 

of  type  matter  marked  "  out "  should  be  let  stand? 
A.    Stet.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  large  size  letter  that  is  used  at  the  beginning 

of  a  job? 

A.   Initial.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  size  type  would  you  use  on  a  5  by  8  circular  of  200  words? 
A.    (i)  (lo-point).  Score  4 

(2)  (i2-point).  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.   What  is  the  standard  newspaper  measure? 
A.    (i)  13  ems.  Score  4 

(2)  12?  ems.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.   What  size  em  is  used  as  a  unit  for  measurements? 

A.    Pica  (i2-point)  (12).  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.   What  kind  of  spaces  and  quads  are  beveled  on  the  back  and 

front  to  clear  the  overhang  of  the  letters? 
A.    Script.  Score  4 

QUESTION   15 

Q.  What  kind  of  quads  and  spaces  are  used  for  electrotype? 

A.    High.  Score  4 


152  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  folio  would  be  placed  beside  page  2  in  locking  up  a  straight 

16-page  form? 

A.    15.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.   By  what  name  are  block  letters  known? 

A.    Gothic.  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   What  is  the  square  of  any  body  of  type  called? 
A.    Em.  Score  4 

QUESTION    19 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  half-tone  where  the  background  fades  away 

gradually? 

A.    Vignette.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.   How  many  8-point  ems  in  a  square  inch? 

A.    81.  Score  4 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

12  and  below N 

13  and  14 A  — 

15  to  42  inclusive A 

43  and  44 A  + 

45  and  46 J  — 

47  to  65  inclusive J 

66  and  67 J  + 

68  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  153 

TRADE  TEST 
SURVEYOR.  —  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF   PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.  What  is  used  to  find  the  proper  position  for  holding  a  chain  when 

it  is  held  above  a  tack  point? 

A.    Plumb-bob.  Score  4 

QUESTION  2 

Q.   How  long  are  the  red  and  white  sections  into  which  a  sighting 

pole  is  divided? 

A.    i  foot.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.   What  does  a  point  marked  P.  T.  signify  on  a  railroad   curve? 

A.    Point  of  tangency.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  would  you  do  to  get  past  a  large  tree  on  a  transit  line? 
A.    Off-set.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   In  running  a  line  of  levels,  what  are  the  permanent  elevation 

points  called  which  are  established  at  various  intervals? 

A.    Bench  marks.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  method  is  used  to  measure  the  distance  across  a  lake  too 

wide  to  be  chained? 
A.   Triangulation.  Score  4 


154  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  What  is  the  point  called  that  the  levelman  sets  before  changing 

the  location  of  the  instrument? 

A.    Turning  point.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8. 

Q.  What  is  meant  by  a  grade  of  2  tenths  of  1  per  cent? 
A.    2  tenths  to  100  feet.  Score  4 

QUESTION  9 

Q.   How  is  the  target  of  a  level  rod  equipped  so  that  readings  of  less 

than  one  hundredth  can  be  made? 

A.    Vernier.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  kind  of  a  curve  is  used  to  connect  two  points  of  different 

elevations? 

A.    Vertical.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  the  sight  called  which  a  levelman  takes  to  get  the  H.  I.? 
A.    Back  (plus).  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.  What  do  you  use  to  turn  the  bubble  adjustment  screws  on  a 

level? 

A.    Pin.  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  lines  on  topographical  maps  which  connect 

points  of  the  same  elevation? 
A.    Contour.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  data  do  you  have  to  take  to  tie-in  a  point  which  is  not  on 

the  line? 
A.    (i)  Distance  and  angle.  Score  4 

(2)  Two  angles.  Score  4 

(3)  Two  distances.  Score  4 


AN   ORAL   TRADE    TEST  155 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  At  what  points  on  a  highway  should  elevation  readings  be  taken 

to  get  an  accurate  profile? 
A.    Changes  in  grades  (high  and  low  points).  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  reading  has  to  be  taken  if  a  stadia  shot  is  made  from  the 

bottom  to  the  top  of  a  hill? 

A.   Vertical.  Score  4 

QUESTION    17 

Q.   What  kind  of  a  curve  is  used  on  railroads  to  lessen  the  diffi- 
culty of  approach? 
A.    Spiral  (transition)  (easement).  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 
Q.   What  are  two  methods  of  finding  a  true  meridian? 

A.    (i)  a.  Polaris  (north  star).  Score  4 

b.  Solar  (sun). 

QUESTION    19 

Q.   What  is  the  angle  called  which  a  line  forms  with  the  meridian 

as  measured  East  or  West  from  a  North  or  a  South  point? 
A.    Bearing  (azimuth).  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.   What  would  be  the  azimuth  of  a  line  calculated  from  the  North 

meridian  if  the  bearing  of  the  line  is  South,  35  degrees  West? 

A.    215.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

9  and  below. N 

10  and  ii A  — 

12  to  37  inclusive ;  .U°.'',  .-.-> A 

38  and  39 A  + 

40  and  41 J  — 

42  to  67  inclusive J 

68  and  69 J  + 

70  and  above • E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating 


156  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
TAILOR.  —  Tailor 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.  What  is  used  to  hold  the  front  of  the  coat  firm  so  it  can  be  shaped? 
A.    (i)  Canvas.  Score  4 

(2)  Haircloth.  Score  4 

(3)  Wigging.  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.  What  is  used  on  the  front  edge  of  a  coat  to  prevent  it  from 

stretching? 
A.    Edge-stay  (stay  tape)  (tape).  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  How  should  the  canvas  be  cut  for  the  under  collar? 

A.    Bias.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4  . 

Q.  What  size  needles  do  you  generally  use  for  hand  sewing? 

A.    3  to  9.  Score  4 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  is  silesia  used  for? 

A.   Pockets.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  157 

QUESTION   6 

Q.  What  six  measurements  must  be  taken  for  a  pair  of  pants? 

A.    (i)  a.  Outside.  Score  4 

b.  Inseam. 

c.  Waist. 

d.  Hips  (seat). 

e.  Knee. 

f.  Bottom. 

Note:  All  required.     No  partial  credits. 

QUESTION  7 

Q.   How  is  a  sleeve  lining  fastened  at  the  top  and  bottom  in  a  coat 

sleeve? 

A.    Felling.  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   How  many  yards  of  56-inch  cloth  will  it  take  to  make  a  suit  for  a 

man  with  38  chest  and  about  5  feet,  8  inches  in  height? 

A.    34  to  3i  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   How  much  longer  should  the  sleeve  lining  be  at  the  top  than  at 

the  bottom? 

A.    I  to  f  of  an  inch.  Score  4 

QUESTION   10 

Q.   What  kind  of  thread  is  used  to  sew  on  buttons? 
A.    Linen.  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   Where  is  linen  or  holland  used  in  a  coat? 

A.    Pockets.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.  What  is  put  on  trouser  seats  to  keep  them  from  raveling? 
A.    Serging  (overcast).  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.   What  is  an  edge  used  on  overcoats  called  which  is  stitched  flat 

without  being  turned  in? 
A.    Raw.  Score  4 


158  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION    14 

Q.  What  is  used  to  cover  wadding? 

A.    Cheese  cloth.  Score  4 

QUESTION    15 

Q.  What  kind  of  edges  would  you  make  on  a  Carrs  Melton  overcoat? 

A.    Raw.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.  What  do  you  call  drawing  two  pieces  of  cloth  together  without  a 

seam? 

A.    Stoting  (stowing).  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.  What  garment  is  Kersey  mostly  used  for? 

A.    Overcoat.  Score  4 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

15  and  below N 

16  and  17 A  — 

18  to  37  inclusive A 

38  and  39 A  + 

40  and  41 J  — 

42  to  56  inclusive J 

57  and  58 _  . , J  + 

59  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  159 

TRADE  TEST 

TELEGRAPHER  AND   WIRELESS   OPERATOR. 
Radio  Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 

Q.  What  two  codes  are  used? 

A.    (i)  a.  Morse  (American  Morse).  Score  4 

b.  Continental  (international). 

QUESTION  2 

Q.   What  is  the  unit  of  resistance? 

A.    Ohm.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  Name  two  types  of  A.C.  transformer  used  in  wireless  work. 
A.    (i)  a.  Open.  Score  4 

b.  Closed. 

QUESTION  4 

Q.   What  are  the  two  international  normal  wave  lengths  for  commer- 
cial stations? 

A.    (i)  a.  300.  Score  4 

b.  600. 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   Name  three  types  of  antenna  in  general  use. 

A.    (i)  a.  T.  Score  4 

b.  Inverted  L. 

c.  Umbrella. 


160  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION  6 

Q.   What  is  used  for  storing  electro-static  energy? 
A.    Condenser.  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.   How  should  a  temporary  repair  be  made  if  a  step  in  the  starting- 
box  is  burned  out? 
A.    Jumper  (short  circuit)  (bridge)  (shunt).  Score  4 

QUESTION   8 

Q.  How  should  connections  or  joints  in  an  aerial  be  made? 
A.    Solder.  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   What  are  four  common  types  of  spark  gap? 

A.    (i)  a.  Plain  (straight)  (fixed)  (open)  (ordinary).  Score  4 

b.  Synchronous  (synchronous-rotary). 

c.  Non-synchronous  (non-synchronous-rotary). 

d.  Quenched. 

QUESTION    10 

Q.  What  is  usually  used  to  clean  motor  commutators? 

A.    (i)  Sandpaper.  Score  4 

(2)  Canvas.  Score  4 

(3)  Emery.  Score  o 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  is  the  unit  of  inductance? 

A.    Henry.  Score  4 

QUESTION    12 

Q.  What  is  included  in  the  bulb  of  a  three-element  vacuum  valve? 
A.    (i)  a.  Filament.  Score  4 

b.  Grid. 

c.  Plate  (wing). 

QUESTION   13 

Q.  What  two  things  are  liable  to  happen  if  you  try  to  transmit  with 

the  spark  gap  open  too  wide? 

A.    (i)  a.  Puncture  condenser.  Score  4 

b.  Break  down  (puncture)  transformer  (secondary). 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  161 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  does  the  signal  Q.  R.  M.  mean? 

A.    Interference.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  is  used  to  find  the  sharpness  of  the  wave? 

A.    Wavemeter  (decremeter).  Score  4 


QUESTION   16 

Q.   Name  four  frequencies  usually  used  in  wireless  generators. 

A.    (i)  a.  60.  Score  4 

b.  1 20. 

c.  240. 

d.  500. 

QUESTION   17 

Q.  What  is  used  for  transferring  the  oscillations  from  the  primary 
or  closed  circuit  to  the  aerial  or  open  circuit  and  to  tune  both 
circuits  to  resonance? 

A.    Oscillation  transformer  (helix)  (jigger).  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.  What  are  two  ways  to  change  B.C.  to  A.C.? 

A.    (i)  a.  Motor  generator.  Score  4 

b.  Rotary  converter  (dynamotor). 

QUESTION   19 

Q.  Where  is  the  highest  potential  strain  on  the  antenna? 

A.    Extreme  (free)  (upper)  (outer)  end.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.  What  will  happen  if  a  motor  is  started  too  slowly? 
A.    (i)  Resistance  coils  (rheostat)  burn  out.  Score  4 

(2)  Starting  box  burn  out.  Score  4 


162  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION  21 

Q.  What  is  used  to  make  a  ground  for  a  field  set  in  very  dry  soil? 
A.    Counterpoise.  Score  4 

RATING  THE  CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

9  and  below N 

10  and  ii A  — 

12  to  52  inclusive A 

53  and  54 A  -f 

55  and  56 J- 

57  to  73  inclusive J  , 

74  and  75 J -f- 

76  and  above  E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  +  rating. 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  163 

TRADE  TEST 

WELDER,   CUTTER.  —  Cutter,  Oxy-Acetylene 
Operator 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION    1 

Q.   What  is  it  called  when  the  edges  of  metal  sheets  are  welded  to- 
gether in  different  spots  to  hold  them  in  place  for  welding? 
A.    Tack  (spot).  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 

Q.   What  chemical  is  mixed  with  water  to  form  acetylene  gas? 
A.    Carbide.  Score  4 

QUESTION   3 

Q.   What  metal  do  you  use  to  braze  brass  and  cast  iron  together? 
A.    Brass  (bronze).  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 

Q.   What  will  happen  if  oil  gets  on  the  oxygen  regulator  or  hose? 

A.    (i)  Explode  (blow  up).  Score  4 

(2)  Catch  fire  (burn  up).  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 

Q.   How  do  you  put  the  flux  on  the  weld  on  light  castings? 
A.    (i)  Dip  rod  in  flux.  Score  4 

(2)  Put  it  on  rod.  Score  4 


164  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   6 

Q.   What  is  the  best  kind  of  rod  to  use  when  welding  cast  aluminum? 

A.    Aluminum.  Score  4 

QUESTION    7 

Q.   What  is  done  to  a  casting  before  welding  to  lessen  the  danger  of 

warping  when  finished? 

A.    Preheat.  Score  4 

QUESTION  8 

Q.   How  should  the  edges  of  thick  plates  be  prepared  for  welding? 
A.    (i)  Bevel  (chamfer)  (45  degrees).  Score  4 

(a)  Vee  (V).  Score  4 

QUESTION   9 

Q.   How  hot  do  you  preheat  large  castings  before  starting  to  weld? 

A.    Red.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   How  can  you  tell  by  looking  at  the  hot  metal  that  too  much  oxy- 
gen is  being  used  in  welding? 

A.    (i)  Boil  (foam)  (spark)  (burn).  Score  4 

(2)  White  (shiny).  Score  4 

QUESTION    11 

Q.   What  is  the  best  kind  of  flux  for  brass? 

A.    Borax.  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   What  simple  flux  can  be  used  for  cast  iron? 

A.    (i)  Borax.  Score  4 

(2)  Soda.  Score  4 

(3)  Salt.  Score  4 

QUESTION    13 

Q.  What  is  the  pressure  of  a  large  size  oxygen  tank? 
A.    1500  to  2  200.  Score  4 

QUESTION    14 

Q.   Why  is  a  casting  annealed  after  welding? 

A.    (i)  Prevent  getting  hard.  Score  4 

(2)  Make  (keep)  soft.  Score  4 


AN    ORAL   TRADE    TEST  165 

QUESTION   15 

Q.   What  is  the  pressure  of  an  acetylene  tank  when  filled? 
A.    200  to  300.  Score  4 

QUESTION    16 

Q.   What  are  the  names  of  two  common  forms  of  joints  used  in 

welding  plates? 
A.    Lap. 

Butt  (straight). 
Flange. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
QUESTION   17 

Q.   What  is  used  to  line  up  crank  shafts  when  welding? 
A.    V  blocks.  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   What  is  put  in  the  acetylene  tank  to  prevent  explosions? 

A.   Acetone.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

19  and  below .' N 

20  and  21 A  — 

22  to  35  inclusive A 

36  and  37 A  + 

38  and  39 J  - 

40  to  55  inclusive J 

56  and  57 J  + 

58  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  -f-  rating. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  SCOPE  OF  THE  ORAL 
TRADE   TEST 

Instructions  for  Giving  Oral  Trade  Tests 

THE  following  are  the  instructions,  with  slight  modifications 
which  were  issued  for  the  administration  of  the  oral  tests. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR   GIVING  ORAL  TRADE 
TESTS 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

GENERAL  STATEMENT: 

In  order  that  the  Oral  Trade  Tests  may  be  used  effectively,  it  is 
necessary  that  examiners  follow  to  the  letter  these  "  Instructions  for 
Giving  Oral  Trade  Tests."  Although  the  tests  have  been  carefully 
prepared,  they  will  not  give  uniform  results  unless  examiners  use 
them  uniformly.  Consequently,  no  change  must  be  made  in  the 
tests  themselves,  or  in  the  manner  of  administering  them,  until 
official  notice  is  given  to  that  effect.  In  case  a  certain  answer  comes 
repeatedly  to  a  given  question,  giving  the  examiner  reason  to  believe 
it  is  a  correct  answer,  even  though  it  is  not  recorded,  the  examiner 
should  bring  the  matter  to  the  attention  of  the  officer  in  charge  at 
the  earliest  possible  moment. 

Even  with  the  use  of  well-standardized  tests  under  the  most  care- 
fully controlled  conditions  the  rating  of  men  by  this  means  is  sub- 
ject to  error  in  some  cases.  This  fact  is  mentioned  to  warn  examiners 


ADMINISTRATION    AND    SCOPE  167 

against  yielding  to  the  temptation  of  permitting  their  judgment  of 
what  the  candidate  knows  to  influence  his  score.  Provision  is  made 
on  the  test  record  card  for  noting  any  facts  which  the  examiner  feels 
should  be  made  a  part  of  the  test  record,  such,  for  example,  as  that 
the  candidate  was  in  unfit  physical  condition  at  the  time  of  the 
testing. 

Preliminary  to  giving  the  test,  the  examiner  will  make  a  statement 
to  the  candidate  which  must  cover  and  be  limited  to  the  following 
points: 

1.  Why  the  test  is  given. 

2.  The  importance  of  thinking  carefully  before  answering 
in  order  to  do  as  well  as  possible. 

3.  The  necessity  of  making  the  answers  brief  and  to  the 
point. 

4.  The  fact  that  there  are  no  "catch"  questions. 

The  exact  wording  is  not  prescribed  because  of  the  obvious 
difficulty  of  making  it  suit  all  examiners  under  varying  con- 
ditions. Note  the  following  sample  statement: 
"We  are  going  to  give  you  a  test  to  find  out  how  much  you 
know  about  your  trade.  Think  carefully  before  you  answer 
so  as  to  do  as  well  as  you  can.  Make  your  answers  brief 
and  to  the  point.  There  are  no  catch  questions  in  this  test." 

GIVING   THE   TESTS: 

1.  Ask  each  man  all  the  questions  (except  the  supplementary 
questions)  in  the  order  given. 

2.  Be  very  careful  to  make  yourself  heard  distinctly. 

3.  Do  not  change  the  questions. 

4.  Do  not  prompt  the  candidate  in  any  way. 

5.  Do  not  illustrate  any  terms  with  gestures.    The  tendency  to 
illustrate  such  expressions  as  vertical,  parallel,  and  the  like, 
is  to  be  particularly  guarded  against. 

6.  Give  no  indication  whatever,  by  comment,  facial  expression 
or  otherwise,  of  the  quality  of  the  candidate's  answers. 

7.  Give  special  emphasis  to  underscored  words:  e.g.,  What  are 
metal  platens  made  of?     What  is  the  practical  limit  for 
vacuum? 


168  TRADE    TESTS 

8.  Guard  against  giving  any  clue  to  the  answer  through  em- 
phasis on  any  particular  word  unless  it  is  underscored. 

9.  Numbering  and  lettering  of  answers: 

(a)  Each  complete  answer  is  numbered. 
For  example, 

Q.   What  is  attached  to  the  ribbon  which  causes  it 

to  reverse? 
A.   (i)  Eyelet.  Score  4 

(2)  Stud.  Score  4 

In  such  a  case  either  answer  is  a  perfect-score 
answer  and  should  be  scored  4. 

(b)  Each  required  part'of  an  answer  is  lettered. 
For  example, 

Q.  What  are  the  three  most  common  styles  of  type? 
A.  (i)  a.  Pica.  Score  4 

b.  Elite. 

c.  Medium  Roman. 

In  such  a  case  all  three  parts  of  the  answer  are  re- 
quired for  a  perfect-score  answer.  Any  one  should 
be  scored  2;  any  two  should  be  scored  3. 

(c)  When  the  question  calls  for  a  specific  number  of 
items  and  more  than  this  number  are  listed  under 
"A,"  numerals  and  letters  are  omitted  and  instruc- 
tions for  scoring  are  given  below  the  last  item  to 
the  right. 

For  example, 

Q.  Name  two  tools  used  for  shearing  off  rivet  heads 

on  heavy  work. 
A.   Buster. 
Cutter. 
Chisel  bar. 

Any  two,  Score  4 
10.   Use  of  answers  given: 

(a)  One  or  more  answers  are  given  to  each  question  as  a 
guide  to  the  examiner.  It  is  not  assumed,  how- 
ever, that  candidates  are  always  required  to  answer 


ADMINISTRATION    AND    SCOPE  169 

in  these  terms.     In  general  only  the  key  word  is 
given. 

(b)  In  some  cases  more  than  one  perfect-score  answer 
is   given.     These   are   acceptable   answers   whose 
quality  cannot  be  readily  inferred  from  the  first 
"answer. 

For  example, 

Q.  What  lifts  the  ribbon  when  printing? 

A.   (i)  Ribbon  shield.  Score  4 

(2)  Oscillating  (actuating)  arm.  Score  4 

(3)  Vibrator.  Score  4 

(c)  In  some  cases  a  zero  answer  is  given.     Such  an 
answer  should  be  scored  o  without  repetition  or 
follow-up  questions.    It  is  in  effect  a  guess  answer. 
The  candidate  should  not  be  permitted  to  guess 
again. 

For  example, 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  seam  is  used  in  heavy  pipe? 
A.    (i)  Rivet  seam.  Score  4 

(2)  Lock  seam.  Score  o 

(d)  The  general  rules  to  be  followed  are: 

(1)  In  case  an  answer  cannot  be  scored  on  the  basis 
of  the  answer  given,  repeat  the  question  or  use 
appropriate  follow-up  questions  as  indicated  in 
Sections  n  and  12. 

(2)  In  case  of  doubt  as  to  whether  an  answer  should 
be  scored  o  at  once  or  followed  up,  always  fol- 
low up. 

Ji.   Repetition  of  questions: 

(a)  A  question  should  be  repeated,  except  as  noted  be- 
low in  paragraph  (b),  under  such  conditions  as  the 
following: 

(1)  When  no  answer  is  given,  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  the  candidate  heard  clearly. 

(2)  When  the  candidate  says,  "I  don't  understand 
the  question,"  or  the  equivalent. 


170  TRADE    TESTS 

(3)  Whenever  the  answer  cannot  be  scored  and 
repetition  of  the  question  seems  the  appropriate 
procedure. 

(4)  When  the  candidate  is  slow  in  answering. 

(b)  An  answer  which  is  unequivocally  wrong  should  be 
scored  o  without  repetition  or  follow-up  questions. 
For  example, 
Q.  When  filing  cast  iron  in  a  lathe,  what  happens 

to  the  cast  iron  if  you  run  the  lathe  too  fast? 
A.   (i)  Case-hardens  it.  Score  4 

(2)  Glazes  it.  Score  4 

If  the  candidate  should  answer  "Softens  it,"  he 
should  be  scored  o.  Repetition  in  such  a  case  is 
practically  equivalent  to  saying,  "Wrong!  Guess 
again." 

12.  Use  of  follow-up  questions: 

Whenever  an  answer  cannot  be  scored  on  the  basis  of 
the  answers  given,  the  examiner  should  use  one  of  the 
following  questions  according  to  the  particular  needs: 

(a)  Anything  more? 

(b)  Any  other  name  for  it? 

(c)  Any  other  way  of  saying  the  same  thing? 

(d)  Any  other  way  of  doing  it? 

13.  An  answer  which  includes  the  correct  answer  but  with  addi- 
tional statements,  is  to  be  given  full  credit,  except  when  any 
part  plainly  negates  the  correct  answer. 

For  example, 

Q.   In  what  direction  do  the  coils  run  in  relation  to 

the  laminations  on  a  drum  wound  armature? 
A.    (Required  answer.)    At  right  angles  (across). 

(Candidate's    answer.)      At    right    angles    or 

parallel. 

"Parallel"  plainly  negates  "at  right  angles." 

Therefore  the  answer  should  be  scored  o. 

14.  When  the  required  answer  contains  a  given  number  of  items 
and  the  candidate  exceeds  this  number,  the  examiner  should 
say: 


ADMINISTRATION    AND    SCOPE  171 

"The  question  calls  for  (one),  (two),  (three),  (four). 
What  is  your  answer?" 
For  example, 

Q.  What  two  metals  are  cam-shaft  bearings  made 

of? 

A.   (Required  answer.)     (i)  a.  Bronze, 
b.  Babbitt. 

(Candidate's  answer.)     Bronze,  babbitt,  steel. 
(Examiner.)    The  question  calls  for  two.   What 
is  your  answer? 

15.  When  the  question  calls  for  a  name  and  the  candidate  answers 
in  terms  of  a  description,  the  examiner  should  say: 

"The  question  calls  for  a  name,  not  a  description. 
What  is  your  answer?  " 

1 6.  Whenever  necessary  the  examiner  may  ask  the  candidate  to 
repeat  his  answer. 

17.  Do  not  permit  the  candidate  to  talk  endlessly  after  he  has 
made  his  answer.    Give  him  the  next  question. 

18.  Use  of  supplementary  questions: 

If  the  examiner  has  reason  to  believe  that  the  candidate  had 
knowledge  of  the  questions  previous  to  the  testing,  he  should 
ask  him  selected  questions  from  the  list  of  supplementary 
questions.  A  candidate  who  has  had  trade  experience  should 
score  at  least  one-third  the  possible  number  of  points. 
Since  these  supplementary  questions  are  to  be  used  only  as  a 
check,  they  should  be  asked  only  when  necessary.  No  one 
candidate  should  be  asked  all  of  the  supplementary  questions. 
The  score  attained  by  the  candidate  on  these  questions  should 
not  affect  his  score  on  the  test.  Whenever  they  are  used,  a 
note  to  that  effect,  together  with  the  score  attained  on  these 
questions,  should  be  made  on  the  record  card. 

Note:    Supplementary   questions  discontinued.     The  above 
statement,-  therefore,  refers  only  to    the  early  tests. 
SCORING : 

i.   Score  the  answer  to  each  question  before  giving  the  next 
question. 


172  TRADE    TESTS 

2.  Score  a  perfect  answer  4. 
Score  a  half -perfect  answer  2. 
Score  a  failure                                     o. 

If  you  cannot  decide  whether  to  score  4  or  2,  score  3. 
If  you  cannot  decide  whether  to  score  2  or  o,  score  i. 

3.  (a)  When  a  question  consists  of  two  parts,  each  part  is  to  be 

allowed  2  points. 

(b)  When  a  question  consists  of  three  parts: 
One  part  to  be  allowed  2  points. 

Two  parts  to  be  allowed  3  points. 
Three  parts  to  be  allowed  4  points. 

(c)  When  a  question  consists  of  four  parts,  each  part  is  to  be 
allowed  one  point. 

4.  Partial  credit  scores  are  to  be  given  only  after  repetition  or 
follow-up  questions  fail  to  bring  a  perfect-score  answer. 

5.  (a)  Alternative  terms  are  enclosed  by  parentheses. 

Those  terms  in  the  answer  of  which  the  words  in  paren- 
theses are  alternatives,  are  underscored. 
For  example, 

A.   Add  inductance  (loading)  coil. 

(b)  When  all  that  precedes  the  parentheses  is  alternative  with 
that  in  the  parentheses  it  is  not  underscored. 
For  example, 
A.   Cut  off  air  (choke  it). 

6.  Unless  the  question  specifically  calls  for  a  range  of  values,  the 
candidate  is  not  required  to  give  a  range  even  though  the 
answer  is  in  this  form.    Either  extreme  or  any  value  within 
the  limits  is  accepted. 

For  example, 

Q.  What  is  the  usual  distance  apart  of  pipe  hangers? 
A.   8  to  10  feet.  Score  4 

If  candidate  answers  8,  or  9,  or  10  feet,  he  is  to  be  scored  4. 

7.  In  the  case  of  *.wo  answers  in  terms  of  a  range,  the  first  answer 
represents  the  best  limits,  and  the  second  answer  the  extreme 
limits. 

(a)  An  answer  which  falls  within  the  best  limits  is  to  be 
scored  4. 


ADMINISTRATION    AND    SCOPE  173 

(b)  An  answer  which  falls  outside  the  best  limits  but  within 
the  extreme  limits  is  to  be  scored  2. 

(c)  An  answer  which  falls  outside  the  extreme  limits  is  to  be 
scored  o. 

(d)  When  the  candidate  answers  in  terms  of  a  range,  score 
each  end  of  the  range  separately  and  take  the  average  for 
the  score  for  the  question. 

For  example, 

Q.   How  much  stock  should  be  left  in  a  i^-inch  hole 

for  hardening  and  grinding? 
A.   (i)  5  to  8  thousandths  of  an  inch.  Score  4 

(2)  3  to  10  thousandths  of  an  inch.  Score  2 

Sample  answers: 

(1)  5  to  10  thousandths  of  an  inch. 

This  should  be  scored  "3"  on  the  following  basis. 
5  —  Score  4 
10  —  Score  2  Average  score  —  3. 

(2)  3  to  12  thousandths  of  an  inch. 

This  should  be  scored  "  i "  on  the  following  basis. 
3  —  Score  2 
12  —  Score  o  Average  score  —  i. 

8.  In  all  cases  score  the  candidate's  answer  on  the  basis  of  what 
he  says,  not  on  the  basis  of  what  you  think  he  knows. 

9.  The  candidate's  Oral  Test  Score  is  obtained  by  adding  the 
scores  for  the  individual  questions. 

10.  The  candidate  will  be  rated  according  to  instructions  given  at 
the  end  of  each  test. 

11.  Divisions  of  trades. 

In  old  well-established  trades,  trade  divisions  generally  are 
as  follows.    Many  of  the  newer  trades  do  not  have  the  divi- 
sions well  denned. 
N  (Novice)         • 

A  man  with  no  trade  experience. 
A  (Apprentice) 

A  man  who  has  had  not  more  than  four  years'  experience 

in  the  trade. 


174  TRADE    TESTS 

J    (Journeyman) 

A  man  who  has  passed  the  apprentice  stage. 

E  (Journeyman  Expert) 

A  man  who  has  had  not  less  than  five  years'  experience  as 
a  journeyman  and  who  has  shown  a  superior  all-round 
knowledge  of  the  trade,  or  such  other  qualifications  as  are 
required  of  a  foreman. 

It  will  be  noted  that  under  the  general  directions  for  scoring, 
partial  credits  were  allowed.  This  was  necessary,  particularly 
in  the  earlier  form  of  tests,  before  the  questions  were  reduced  to 
the  single-answer  type.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  giving  of 
partial  credits  is  a  mistake,  for  it  introduces  a  subjective  ele- 
ment in  the  scoring  which  is  very  undesirable.  It  was  the  experi- 
ence with  this  type  of  marking  that  led  to  the  stricter  adherence 
to  the  one- word  answer  method.  With  the  more  extensive  use 
of  the  single-word  answer,  the  giving  of  partial  credits  became 
unnecessary.  If  the  candidate  in  his  answer  used  the  cue  word, 
full  credit  (4)  was  given;  if  he  failed  to  use  this  word,  he  was 
marked  zero.  In  the  future  work  all  questions  which  do  not 
admit  of  being  marked  in  this  way  should  be  eliminated  in  the 
process  of  standardization. 

The  necessity  for  the  accurate  following  of  these  instructions 
may  not  be  quite  clear  to  those  who  are  unfamiliar  with  the 
process  whereby  the  standards  of  achievements  for  the  three 
levels  of  trade  ability  were  established.  During  this  process 
the  directions  just  given  were  followed  to  the  letter,  and  on  the 
basis  of  this  procedure  the  ratings  were  determined.  If  any  de- 
parture is  made  from  this  routine,  the  standards,  carefully  es- 
tablished by  a  laborious  scientific  proces's,  have  no  meaning  and 
cannot  be  used  for  rating  purposes. 


ADMINISTRATION   AND   SCOPE  175 

The  Attitude  of  the  Tradesman  to  the  Test 

A  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place  with  reference  to  the 
attitude  of  the  tradesmen  to  whom  the  tests  were  given.  It  is  a 
common  impression  that  the  average  workman  resents  any- 
thing that  savors  of  an  examination.  The  idea  was  so  dominant 
at  the  beginning  of  the  trade  test  experiment  that  it  was 
seriously  debated  as  to  whether  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  pay 
the  men  who  served  as  the  examinees.  It  was  known  that  the 
employer  would  be  willing  to  sacrifice  the  time  of  his  men,  but 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  make  payment  to  overcome  the 
opposition  of  the  men  themselves.  In  actual  practice  the  diffi- 
culty was  not  to  persuade  men  to  take  the  tests,  but  to  get  away 
from  the  plant  without  examining  more  men  than  the  nature 
of  the  experiment  demanded.  On  many  occasions  the  author, 
after  filling  the  quota  for  a  particular  examination,  on  the 
earnest  entreaty  of  the  men  who  had  not  been  tested,  proceeded 
to  give  them  the  test,  though  the  records  were  discarded  on 
leaving  the  plant.  The  men  who  were  not  tested  felt  themselves 
discriminated  against.  Only  in  one  case  out  of  several  thousand 
was  there  the  slightest  objection  raised  by  a  tradesman  to  the 
procedure;  in  this  case,  further  inquiry  led  to  the  fact  that  this 
particular  workman  was  a  thorough  crank.  The  common  atti- 
tude of  the  employer  was  also  favorable  and  may  be  represented 
by  one  superintendent  who  once  said  on  our  leaving:  "I  wish 
you  men  would  come  once  a  month  just  to  show  my  boys  that 
they  don't  know  it  all." 

Whether  a  similar  attitude  of  mind  will  be  found  when  these 
tests  are  used  in  the  employment  offices  of  the  country  depends 
almost  wholly  on  the  skill  of  those  who  are  giving  the  tests.  One 
thing  is  certainly  true:  the  trade  test,  because  of  its  close  rela- 
tion to  the  man's  occupation,  will  not  have  to  meet  the  opposi- 


176  TRADE    TESTS 

tion  which  is  often  found  when  psychological  or  skill  prediction 
tests  are  employed.  When  a  man  has  claimed  trade  knowl- 
edge, he  usually  expects,  under  present  conditions,  to  be  given 
some  form  of  test.  The  trade  test  itself  is  only  a  more  scientific 
refinement  of  present  trade  interview  methods.  It  can  be  ad- 
ministered in  as  informal  a  manner  as  the  other  part  of  the 
employment  interview. 

An  Alternative  Method  of  Constructing  Oral  Trade  Tests 

The  method  of  calibrating  which  results  in  certain  ranges  of 
scores  determining  the  various  trade  levels  of  ability  is  perhaps 
the  simplest  device  for  rating.  It  has,  however,  certain  grave 
disadvantages.  One  of  these  arises  from  the  fact  that  an  in- 
verted statistical  process  has  been  used.  The  standards  of 
achievement  were  determined  by  assuming  certain  trade  levels 
and  then  determining  the  ranges  of  scores  which  gave  the  least 
overlapping.  That  is,  the  passage  is  from  known  trade  level  to 
score;  to  reverse  the  process  and  pass  from  score  to  trade  level 
is  fallacious.  For  example  —  suppose  in  a  particular  set  of 
twenty  questions  the  following  standards  obtained: 

N  1-19, 
A  20-44, 

J    45-63, 
E  64-80. 

The  score  45-63  does  not  mean  that  all  journeymen  scored 
between  45  and  63  and  no  apprentice  or  expert  fell  in  this  range. 
It  merely  means  that  the  range  45-63  gave  the  minimum  of 
overlapping.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  may  be  true  that  two  of 
the  experts  and  three  of  the  apprentices  fell  in  this  class.  A 
score,  therefore,  of  between  45  and  63  does  not  indicate  neces- 
sarily a  journeyman  ability,  but  merely  a  high  probability  of 


ADMINISTRATION    AND    SCOPE  177 

journeyman  ranking,  a  lower  probability  of  expert  ranking  and 
a  still  lower  probability  of  apprentice  ranking.  It  is  always  a 
matter  of  probability.  Any  range  of  score  does  not  mean  a 
single  level  of  trade  ability  but  a  range  of  ability. 

The  other  disadvantage  of  the  ratings  being  based  on  totals 
in  all  questions  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  unsuitability  of  a 
single  question,  and  the  impossibility  of  its  use,  throw  out  the 
whole  scheme  of  rating.  On  account  of  these  two  disadvantages 
another  possible  method  of  constructing  the  test  in  which  these 
two  difficulties  are  obviated  may  be  mentioned. 

Suppose  we  consider  three  questions  of  ascending  order  of 
difficulty ;  these  questions  when  administered  to  twenty  novices, 
twenty  apprentices,  twenty  journeymen  and  twenty  experts 
give  the  following  results. 

Question  No.  of  anrwers  correct 

N  A  J  E 

A                    i  17  19  20 

Bo  2  18  20 

Co  o  3  15 

The  table  indicates  that  question  A  was  answered  correctly 
by  one  out  of  the  twenty  novices,  seventeen  out  of  the  twenty 
apprentices,  etc. 

From  the  manner  in  which  question  A  is  answered  it  will  be 
apparent  that  this  question  is  indicative  of  apprenticeship 
ability,  and  it  does  not  serve  to  differentiate  the  apprentice  from 
the  journeyman  or  expert.  It  does,  however,  separate  the 
novice  from  the  apprentice.  The  question  may,  therefore,  be 
taken  as  typical  of  the  level  of  ability  of  the  apprentice.  That 
is,  a  correct  answer  to  the  question  gives  every  assurance  that 
the  applicant  has  at  least  apprenticeship  standing. 

Similarly  question  B  is  characteristic  of  journeyman  standing 
and  question  C  indicative  of  expert  standing. 


178  TRADE    TESTS 

In  this  way  a  group  of  characteristic  apprentice  questions 
could  be  collected,  the  answering  of  each  one  of  the  questions 
giving  a  high  degree  of  probability  that  the  examinee  had  at 
least  apprentice  standing.  The  answer  of  a  combination  of 
questions  within  the  group,  would  give  an  almost  certain  verdict 
as  to  whether  ability  characteristic  of  the  apprentice  was  pres- 
ent. Similarly  groups  of  questions  could  be  assembled  for  the 
journeyman  and  expert  levels  respectively. 

It  is  of  course  possible  to  work  out  for  each  question  the 
probability  that  a  correct  answer  indicates  a  given  level  of  ability, 
but  this  refinement  would  hardly  be  necessary  for  ordinary 
work. 

With  such  a  method  of  construction,  the  final  form  of  the 
test  would  consist  of  a  large  number  of  questions,  each  ques- 
tion falling  into  one  of  three  levels  characteristic  of  the 
ability  of  the  apprentice,  journeyman  and  expert,  respectively. 
The  answering  of  a  certain  number  of  questions  within  a  group 
would  constitute  the  passing  of  that  stage.  The  method  would 
be  essentially  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  well-known  Binet 
Simon  Intelligence  Test.  Here  there  are  groups  of  questions 
for  each  age  level;  in  the  trade  test,  these  would  be  replaced 
by  groups  of  questions  for  each  trade  level. 

Analysis  of  questions  also  reveals  the  interesting  fact  that, 
while  a  correct  answer  may  be  very  significant  as  an  index  of 
class,  a  failure  to  answer  is  of  little  value  for  diagnosis,  but 
this  phase  of  the  problem  must  be  left. 

The  advantages  of  groups  of  questions  characteristic  of  the 
three  levels  are  obvious.  In  the  first  place,  only  one  or  two  or 
three  questions  within  the  group  need  be  used  to  secure  an  al- 
most certain  rating.  In  the  second  place  there  is  no  need  to 
ask  an  expert  a  series  of  questions  which  are  -so  simple  that  the 
ordinary  apprentice  can  answer  them.  When  examining  a 


ADMINISTRATION    AND   SCOPE  179 

tradesman  who  is  considered  to  be  an  expert,  the  examination 
can  commence  with  expert  questions,  and  perhaps  three  or  four 
questions  will  settle  the  case.  In  the  third  place  if  a  question 
proves  unsuitable  it  can  be  eliminated  without  throwing  out 
the  basis  of  scoring. 

Scope  of  Oral  Trade  Test 

At  the  time  when  the  oral  trade  test  method  was  first  em- 
ployed it  was  thought  that  its  general  justification  lay  in  the 
fact  that  oral  tests  were  of  low  cost,  and  that  they  could  be 
applied  to  a  large  number  of  men  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
with  the  minimum  of  equipment.  It  was  not  anticipated  that 
they  would,  in  many  cases,  more  than  distinguish  between  the 
presence  or  absence  of  trade  ability.  Certainly  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  work  not  even  the  most  optimistic  would 
have  ventured  to  predict  the  accuracy  with  which  they  deter- 
mined different  degrees  of  ability.  Although  considered  at  the 
first  a  rough,  quick  method  of  measurement,  the  oral  test  proved 
itself,  under  the  gruelling  of  camp  conditions,  to  be  the  most 
accurate  method  which  was, used.  On  the  whole  it  worked 
with  most  trades  far  more  satisfactorily  than  the  performance 
or  picture  test.  However  skeptical  the  reader  may  be  of  the 
idea  that  a  workman's  degree  of  skill  can  be  determined  by 
examinations  of  this  kind,  the  fact  remains  that  under  the 
most  practical  of  all  tests  they  more  than  vindicated  the  reliance 
which  was  placed  in  them. 

The  oral  trade  test  can  be  applied  to  a  wide  range  of  occupa- 
tions. Never  was  an  attempt  made  to  construct  a  trade  test  in 
any  occupation  which  did  not  finally  result  in  a  set  of  questions 
which  more  or  less  fulfilled  the  necessary  requirements.  It  is 
true  that  in  certain  trades  the  differentiation  between  the  four 
classes,  novice,  apprentice,  journeyman  and  expert,  was  much 


180  TRADE    TESTS 

less  exact  than  in  others,  but  in  no  case  was  there  a  failure  to 
get  sufficient  differentiation  to  justify  the  use  of  the  method. 

The  question  as  to  whether  this  method  can  rightly  be  applied 
to  a  trade  is  found  in  the  answer  to  the  question  as  to  the  ratio 
between  skill  and  information,  in  the  particular  trade  ability. 
If  the  trade  demands  next  to  no  information,  and  it  is  almost 
wholly  a  matter  of  dexterity,  then  the  oral  test  is  not  suitable. 
Such  trades  as  typist,  truck  driver,  clerical  worker,  serve  as 
examples  of  occupations  which  are  clearly  more  adapted  to  the 
application  of  the  performance  test.  The  distinction  between  the 
mediocre  and  the  expert  truck  driver  is  not  to  be  found,  as  can 
be  readily  seen,  in  the  greater  amount  of  information  possessed 
by  the  expert,  but  rather  in  the  amount  of  skill  with  which  he 
can  use  the  little  information  which  is  required  for  handling 
the  truck.  At  the  other  extreme  we  get  occupations  such  as 
surveyor,  power  house  man,  where  the  whole  emphasis  is  on 
information,  and  skill  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  processes  fol- 
lows almost  automatically  from  the  possession  of  the  necessary 
information.  In  these  occupations  the  oral  trade  test  shows  to 
the  maximum  advantage. 

It  is  interesting  to  record,  however,  that  trades,  which  at 
first  sight  appear  to  be  almost  wholly  a  matter  of  skill,  can  be 
treated  by  the  question-answer  method.  The  trade  upon  which 
the  author  commenced  work  with  the  greatest  trepidation, 
namely,  general  cook,  furnished  after  more  than  usual  care,  a 
set  of  questions  which  differentiated  with  a  fair  degree  of  accu- 
racy between  different  degrees  of  cooking  ability  and  knowl- 
edge, as  found  in  workers  in  restaurants,  residences  and  family 
hotels.  This  test,  in  part,  is  here  reproduced,  not  by  any  means 
because  it  is  one  of  the  best,  but  because  it  shows  the  successful 
application  of  the  oral  trade  test  method  to  a  field  where  success 
would  hardly  have  been  predicted.  The  extensive  range  of 


ADMINISTRATION    AND   SCOPE  181 

trades,  for  which  oral   tests   were  successfully  constructed,  is 
the  best  indication  of  their  wide  applicability. 

For  the  general  guidance  of  those  who  may  wish  to  decide 
whether  a  particular  trade  lends  itself  to  being  tested  by  the 
oral  method,  the  following  rule  may  be  laid  down.  If  the  trade 
requires  for  its  successful  pursuit  any  considerable  body  of 
information  the  oral  method  may  be  applied.  Where,  however, 
the  successful  pursuit  of  the  trade  is  dependent  on  the  smallest 
amount  of  information  and  largely  dependent  on  skill  or  dex- 
terity, use  the  oral  test  method  with  the  greatest  caution.  It 
is  almost  certain  that  a  performance  test  of  some  kind  will  here 
be  the  only  accurate  method  of  measuring  trade  ability. 

COOKS  TEST  (Selected  questions) 

1.  What  is  added  to  milk  to  keep  it  from  curdling  when  making 
creamed  tomato  soup? 

Soda. 

2.  What  do  you  put  on  fried  sweet  potatoes  to  make  them  brown? 
Sugar. 

3.  What  kind  of  bones  are  used  to  flavor  bean  soup? 
Ham. 

4.  What  is  put  in  buckwheat  cakes  to  make  them  rise  when  the 
cakes  are  mixed  with  sweet  milk? 

Baking  powder. 

5.  What  vegetables  are  used  in  succotash? 
Beans  and  corn. 

6.  What  is  the  color  of  the  powder  used  in  making  lamb  curry? 
Brown  (yellow). 

7.  What  do  you  put  in  soup  stock  to  make  it  clear? 
Egg  (egg-shell). 

8.  What  kind  of  meat  is  used  in  Irish  Stew? 
Lamb  (mutton). 

9.  How  long  do  you  boil  American  macaroni? 
Anywhere  from  15  to  30  minutes. 

10.  From  what  part  of  the  beef  is  porterhouse  steak  cut? 
Loin  (sirloin)  (T-bone). 


SECTION  III 
THE  PICTURE  TRADE  TEST 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  PICTURE   TRADE  TEST  METHOD 

The  Picture  Test  Method 

THE  picture  test  method  resembles  so  closely  that  used  in  the 
purely  oral  test  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  picture 
tests  at  length.  The  stages  passed  through  in  its  construction 
are  essentially  similar  to  those  which  have  just  been  described 
for  the  oral  tests.  The  account  which  is  here  given  will  limit 
itself,  therefore,  to  the  consideration  of  the  following  topics: 

(I)  Reasons  for  the  use  of  pictures. 

(II)  General  description  of  the  construction  of  the  picture 
test. 

(III)  Presentation  of  several  typical  picture  tests. 

(IV)  Criticism  of  this  method  of  examination. 

REASON  FOR  THE  USE  OF  THE  PICTURE  METHOD 

Undoubtedly  the  major  reason  for  the  introduction  of  the 
form  of  test  in  which  actual  pictures  of  tools,  machines  and 
processes  were  employed  was  the  attempt  to  get  nearer  to  the 
conditions  under  which  the  trade  is  performed.  The  fact  is 
accepted  that  the  best  prediction  of  ability  in  any  activity  is 
given  by  that  test  which  in  its  essential  structure  most  closely 
resembles  the  given  activity.  It  is  apparent,  for  example,  that 
the  most  perfect  test  for  a  storage  battery  man  would  be  that 
in  which  the  individual  under  examination  was  given  a  number 
of  actual  jobs  to  do  which  were  typical  of  the  trade.  This  would 

185 


186  TRADE    TESTS 

amount  to  a  number  of  performance  tests.  In  the  absence  of 
such  a  complete  reproduction  of  the  conditions  of  normal  work, 
the  next  most  perfect  substitute  is  that  in  which  the  test  opera- 
tions so  closely  resemble  the  trade  operations  that  success  in  the 
former  would  be  a  sure  indication  of  ability  in  the  latter.  While 
admitting  that  the  performance  method,  given  the  necessary 
material  and  ample  time,  is  ideal,  the  question  arises  whether, 
in  the  absence  of  all  material  and  w.th  a  short  period  of  examina- 
tion, it  is  not  possible  to  use  a  form  of  examination  which  approxi- 
mates more  closely  to  the  performance  test  than  does  the  purely 
oral  examination.  In  the  type  of  test  which  has  been  described 
in  the  previous  chapters,  the  question  was  merely  stated  in 
words.  This  involved  on  the  part  of  the  tradesman  under 
examination  a  translation  of  these  words  into  a  mental  picture 
or  a  mentally  reconstructed  situation.  An  illustration  will  make 
this  clear.  In  the  wagoner-blacksmith  oral  test  the  following 
question  was  asked:  "With  what  are  the  springs  fastened  to 
each  other  at  the  ends?"  In  order  to  answer  this  question  the 
ordinary  workman  must  first  get  in  his  mind  a  clear  picture  of 
the  operation;  in  by  far  the  majority  of  cases  he  will  see,  as  we 
say,  ".in  his  mind's  eye"  a  picture  of  the  springs.  Without  this 
process  of  reproduction  a  correct  answer  will  be  impossible, 
unless  the  question  is  so  familiar  and  has  been  so  often  answered 
that  no  definite  picture  is  necessary.  It  may  be  true  that  in 
very  simple  operations  there  is  merely  a  verbal  process,  but  in 
by  far  the  larger  number  of  simple  operations  and  in  practically 
all  complex  processes  some  kind  of  mental  picture  is  essential. 
Contrast  now  the  purely  oral  question  with  one  in  which  a  pic- 
ture is  shown  of  the  springs  fastened  to  each  other  at  the  ends 
by  the  shackles  with  an  arrow  pointing  to  the  shackles.  In  this 
case  the  question  would  be,  "What  do  you  call  the  pieces, 
marked  with  an  arrow,  which  fasten  the  springs  together  at  the 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     187 

ends?"  To  answer  this  question  there  is  no  need  for  a  mental 
picture,  as  this  term  is  ordinarily  used.  The  second  type  of 
question,  it  is  claimed,  is  a  much  nearer  approach  to  an  actual 
shop  situation  where  a  workman,  pointing  to  the  shackles, 
might  well  ask  for  their  name. 

Where  pictures  of  tools,  machines  and  operations  are  present, 
the  general  impression  produced  on  the  tradesman  is  that  the 
examination  is  much  less  abstract;  although  he  is  not  actually 
handling  the  tools  or  running  the  machine,  he  feels  much  more 
at  home  and  is  more  liable  to  have  confidence  in  himself  as  well 
as  trust  in  the  examination.  It  has  been  already  mentioned 
that  one  of  the  difficulties  that  was  anticipated  in  the  use  of 
the  oral  test  method  was  the  presence  of  so-called  "motor- 
mindedness"  in  many  tradesmen.  That  is,  there  were  thought 
to  be  tradesmen  who  would  do  the  job,  but  were  completely 
unable  to  answer  questions.  The  results  of  the  oral  tests  tried 
out  on  hundreds  of  thousands  of  men  have  shown  that  such 
individuals  virtually  do  not  exist  or  if  they  do,  they  form  such 
a  small  percentage  of  the  total  trade  population  that  they  need 
not  be  given  consideration.  This,  however,  does  not  prevent  a 
large  number  of  employers  and  workmen  from  still  holding  and 
being  influenced  by  this  popular  notion.  To  such  employers 
and  tradesmen  the  picture  test  method  will  commend  itself. 
Where  they  feel  that  injustice  has  been  done  by  the  oral  method, 
the  application  of  the  picture  method  will  serve  as  a  further 
check.  Every  examination  for  its  successful  functioning  de- 
mands the  whole-hearted  cooperation  of  the  examinee.  Any 
element  which  can  be  introduced  into  the  test  which  will  es- 
tablish confidence,  both  in  the  man  himself  and  in  the  method, 
has  great  value.  One  of  the  difficulties  which  have  to  be  faced 
in  any  plant  when  introducing  any  form  of  intelligence  or  trade 
tests  centers  around  this  point.  Nothing  is  more  essential  than 


188  TRADE    TESTS 

that  at  the  end  of  any  interview  or  test  the  workman  leaves 
with  a  feeling  that  he  has  had  the  maximum  chance  to  show  his 
ability.  The  problem  of  not  only  giving  a  square  deal  to  each 
employee  but  also  of  convincing  him  that  he  has  had  a  square 
deal  is  one  upon  which  it  is  impossible  to  lay  too  much  em- 
phasis. A  method  of  selection  may  be  as  perfect  as  possible, 
but  if  it  arouses  antagonism  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  sub- 
jected to  it,  it  is  a  most  dangerous  instrument,  and  will,  in  the 
long  run,  if  education  does  not  lessen  the  antagonism,  do  much 
more  harm  than  good.  Quite  apart  from  its  power  of  differen- 
tiating between  different  trade  abilities,  on  this  score  the  pic- 
ture test  possesses  distinct  advantages  as  compared  with  the 
purely  oral  method. 

Picture  Tests  Admit  of  More  Detailed  Questions 

Where  a  picture  is  presented,  showing  at  a  glance  the  various 
parts  of  the  machine  or  the  elements  of  the  process,  there  is  no 
limit  to  the  detail  of  the  questions  which  may  be  asked.  Many 
problems  which  could  not  be  stated  in  words,  or  at  best  would 
require  a  complicated  description  to  be  understood,  can  be 
asked  in  the  simplest  manner  when  reference  can  be  made  to 
a  picture.  One  of  the  objections  at  first  made  to  the  oral  test 
question  of  the  single-answer  type,  was  that  it  would  have  to  be 
of  such  a  simple  order  that  there  would  be  no  possibility  of 
using  it  to  distinguish  between  the  three  levels  of  trade  ability. 
While  we  know  by  experiment  that  this  is  not  the  case,  there 
is  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  that  the  picture  method, 
when  used  to  its  limit,  would  give  a  much  more  satisfactory 
differentiation  between  experts  and  journeymen  than  that 
which  could  be  expected  of  the  purely  oral  method. 

In  addition,  there  was  at  its  conception  another  justification 
for  the  picture  method.  It  seemed  that  the  assistance  fur- 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     189 

nished  by  the  pictures  might  enable  a  foreigner  with  language 
difficulty  to  be  tested  when  the  oral  questions  without  pictures 
would  fail  to  be  understood.  It  was  not  anticipated  that  this 
kind  of  test  could  be  used  on  a  tradesman  with  no  knowledge  of 
English,  because,  even  with  pictures,  the  questions  are  in  Eng- 
lish. But  there  was  hope  that  the  simpler  form  of  questions 
which  can  be  used  with  the  pictures  would  enable  a  great  num- 
ber of  men  with  only  slight  language  difficulty  to  do  them- 
selves reasonable  justice  in  the  absence  of  a  performance  test. 
This  expectation,  however,  was  not  realized  .in  practice,  for 
reasons  which  will  be  stated  when  we  consider  at  greater  length 
the  relative  disadvantages  of  this  method  of  examination. 

The  method  of  construction  of  the  p  cture  or  photographic 
test  and  the  various  stages  through  which  it  passed  before  com- 
pletion are  so  similar  to  those  used  in  the  building  up  of  the 
purely  oral  test,  that  only  a  few  of  the  more  outstanding  points 
of  difference  need  be  mentioned.  The  only  essential  point  of 
divergence  in  the  two  methods  is  to  be  found  in  the  aid  given  to 
the  subject  by  the  use  of  photographs  and  pictures.  The  same 
type  of  answer,  preferably  the  one-word  answer,  was  adhered 
to;  the  questions  employed  were  altered  both  in  their  form 
and  content  to  make  them  suitable  for  investigating  the  sub- 
ject's knowledge  of  the  trade  process  to  which  the  pictures  were 
related.  The  picture  material  was  obtained  from  many  sources, 
of  which  the  following  were  the  most  important: 

1.  Text  books  and  manuals  of  the  trade. 

2.  Trade  journals. 

3.  Actual  photographs,  specially  prepared. 

4.  Diagrams  and  sketches,  specially  made. 

5.  Trade  catalogues. 

The  above  will  furnish  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of  pic- 
tures. More  often  these  oictures  will  be  of  the  tools  and  ma- 


190  TRADE    TESTS 

chines,  and  less  often  of  the  actual  process  of  the  trade.  Where 
pictures  of  processes  are  required,  resort  usually  has  to  be  had 
either  to  more  elaborate  treatises  on  the  trade,  or  else  to  photo- 
graphs, specially  taken. 

Method  of  Construction 

Given  this  bulk  of  the  material,  the  essential  point  was  to 
construct  questions  with  reference  to  those  pictures  which  had 
distinct  significance  in  the  trade.  As  may  be  readily  seen,  a 
great  many  trades  use  common  tools  and  common  processes, 
of  which  the  simplest  illustrations  are  the  hammer,  the  wrench 
and  the  lathe.  Obviously,  it  was  necessary,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  oral  question,  to  choose  pictures  of  those  tools,  machines 
and  processes  which  applied  specifically  to  the  one  trade  and  to 
that  trade,  alone.  Thus,  for  example,  to  present  a  picture  of  a 
micrometer  and  to  ask  simply,  "What  is  that?  "  is  putting  a  ques- 
tion which  would  apply  not  to  a  single  trade,  but  to  practically 
every  trade  of  the  machinists'  group.  The  questions  that  were 
constructed  had  to  conform  to  these  three  material  requirements : 

1.  They  must  differentiate  between  the  three  trade  levels  of 
apprentice,  journeyman,  and  expert. 

2.  They  must  yield  a  single  answer,  preferably  one  word. 

3.  They  must  apply  specifically  to  the  trade  in  question, 
and  that  trade  alone. 

Again,  consultation  with  expert  tradesmen  in  the  occupa- 
tion was  the  source  of  information  for  the  construction  of  ques- 
tions conforming  to  the  above  requirements.  While  text  books, 
manuals  and  catalogues  give  a  very  good  indication  as  to  com- 
mon tools  and  practices,  it  was  necessary  in  every  case  to  verify 
most  carefully  any  information  obtained  in  this  way.  Re- 
peatedly it  was  found  that  tools  and  processes  described  in 
even  the  best  manuals  did  not  conform  to  practice  in  the  shops. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     191 

When  the  tradesmen  were  questioned  with  regard  to  the  suit- 
ability of  a  particular  question  or  picture,  they  would  often 
reply:  ''Well,  I  suppose  that  it  could  be  done  that  way.  In 
fact,  that  would  be  the  best  way,  but  we  do  it  in  another  way, 
using  other  tools  and  other  machines."  It  was  only  by  visiting 
numerous  plants  that  it  was  possible  to  be  sure  that  the  ques- 
tion was  universally  suitable.  Again,  one  of  the  great  difficulties 
that  were  met  was  the  differences  in  machines,  turned  out  by 
the  various  makers  for  accomplishing  the  same  purpose.  Al- 
though the  basic  principles  of  the  machines  were  the  same,  and 
the  operations  involved  almost  identical,  it  was  discovered  that 
the  ordinary  workman  was  at  sea,  when  confronted  by  a  picture 
of  a  machine  which  was  slightly  different  from  his  own.  Even 
such  unessential  differences  as  the  power  used  in  running  the 
machine  seemed  to  throw  the  ordinary  workman  off  the  track. 
When  he  was  accustomed  to  a  belt-driven  machine,  the  fact 
that  a  slightly  later  type  of  machine,  motor-driven,  was  pic- 
tured, was  sufficient  to  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  The 
workman  would  look  at  the  picture  and  reply  at  once,  "This 
is  not  the  kind  of  machine  that  I  have  seen.  The  ones  that  we 
use  don't  have  this  attachment."  The  same  difficulty  was  met, 
though  to  a  less  degree,  in  the  case  of  the  more  complex  tools. 
Even  very  unessential  differences  were  confusing.  Times  with- 
out number  the  tradesman  when  looking  at  the  picture  would 
say:  " Give  me  a  little  time.  I  will  have  to  figure  this  out.  The 
tool  I  use  is  quite  different  from  this." 

In  spite  of  these  obstacles,  in  the  ordinary  trades  the  large 
majority  of  the  tools,  most  of  the  process  and  a  considerable 
number  of  the  machines,  were  universally  known.  Around 
pictures  of  these,  with  the  help  of  expert  tradesmen,  the  ques- 
tions were  devised;  as  in  the  case  of  the  oral  questions,  it  was 
the  expert  who  supplied  the  necessary  trade  information,  while 


192  TRADE    TESTS 

the  compilers  of  the  questions  were  responsible  for  framing  the 
question  so  that  it  conformed  to  the  requirements  which  we 
have  discussed  at  great  length  under  the  oral  trade  test  method. 
They  will  be  found  on  pages  85-88. 

The  detailed  statement  of  the  method  of  administration  of 
the  test  will  be  given  later;  here  it  need  only  be  mentioned  in 
passing  that  the  examiner  was  supplied  with  the  questions, 
while  the  tradesman  was  provided  with  a  small  booklet  con- 
taining the  pictures.  The  examiner  then  was  responsible  for 
seeing  that  the  attention  of  the  tradesman  was  directed  to  that 
picture  concerning  which  the  question  was  being  asked. 

From  this  point  on  the  procedure  leading  to  the  completion 
of  the  final  test  was  similar  to  that  described  for  the  oral  tests. 
These  stages  were: 

1.  The  preliminary  testing  of  the  questions,  with  elimination 
and    revision   by    administration    to    three    apprentices,    three 
journeymen  and  three  experts. 

2.  The  final  testing  of  these  questions  for  purposes  of  stand- 
ardization. 

3.  Statistical  treatment  of  the  results. 

4.  Selection  of  final  questions  and  calibration  of  the  test. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  describe  the  procedure  characteristic  of 
each  of  these  stages,  for  they  have  already  been  dealt  with  in 
full  for  a  particular  set  of  questions  in  the  oral  method. 

Instructions  for  Giving  Picture  Trade  Tests 

GENERAL    STATEMENT 

In  giving  Picture  Tests  the  same  instructions  govern  in  the  main 
as  for  giving  Oral  Tests.  (See  Instructions  for  Giving  Oral  Trade 
Tests.) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     193 

GIVING  THE  TESTS 

(See  Instructions  for  Giving  Oral  Trade  Tests,  paragraphs  i  to  8.) 

1.  Every  Picture  Trade  Test  is  prepared  in  two  folders,*  one  for 
the  examiner  and  one  for  the  candidate.     The  Examiner's  Folder 
contains  the  questions  and  answers  for  the  test.    The  Candidate's 
Folder  contains  the  pictures  upon  which  the  questions  are  based. 

2.  Place  in  front  of  the  candidate  the  folder  containing  the  pictures. 

3.  Precede  each  question  by  stating  the  number  of  the  picture,  to 
insure  that  the  candidate  is  looking  at  the  right  picture  while  the 
question  is  being  asked. 

4.  The  examiner  may  point  to  a  picture  instead  of  designating  it 
by  number  if  that  is  found  more  convenient. 

5.  Repetition  of  questions:    (See  paragraph  na,  Instructions  for 
Giving  Oral  Trade  Tests.) 

6.  If  the  candidate  gives  an  incomplete  answer,  or  an  answer  so 
different  from  the  correct  answer  that  his  knowledge  cannot  be 
judged,   (See  paragraph   12.     Instructions  for  Giving  Oral  Trade 
Tests.) 

7.  If  the  candidate  points  to  the  correct  part  of  the  photograph 
instead  of  stating  the  letter  notation  on  that  part,  his  answer  is 
acceptable  in  that  form. 

8.  The  Examiner  may,  at  his  own  discretion,  point  to  any  part 
of  the  picture  which  is  mentioned  in  the  question  but  should  be 
careful  not  to  call  attention  to  any  part  which  will  serve  to  prompt 
the  candidate. 

SCORING 

1.  In  all  cases  score  the  candidate's  answer  on  the  basis  of  what 
he  says,  not  what  you  think  he  knows. 

2.  A  perfect  answer  is  scored  4.    An  imperfect  answer  is  scored  o. 

3.  No  partial  credits  are  allowed. 

4.  If  a  question  can  be  answered  in  several  ways,  the  acceptable 
answers  are  listed  and  numbered.    The  note  "One  sufficient"  means 
that  the  candidate  only  needs  to  give  one  of  the  answers  in  order  to 
obtain  a  score  of  4.    The  note  "Both  required"  means  that  the  can- 
didate must  give  both  of  the  listed  items  in  order  to  obtain  a  score 
of  4. 

*  Pictures  are  here  reproduced  in  body  of  test. 


194  TRADE    TESTS 

5.  Equivalent  words  are  printed  in  parentheses.     The  word  in 
parentheses  is  equivalent  to  the  word  immediately  preceding  the 
parentheses. 

6.  The  printed  answers  are  not  complete  answers  in  the  ordinary 
sense.    The  scoring  system  is  based  on  key  words. 

7.  The  candidate  must  use  all  the  key  words  in  one  of  the  answers 
listed  as  correct.     He  may  say  more,  of  course,  but  should  not  be 
permitted  to  ramble. 

8.  The  candidate  is  not  required  to  give  the  key  words  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  printed. 

9.  Score  the  answer  to  each  question  before  giving  the  next  question. 

10.  If  the  candidate  gives  a  satisfactory  answer  which  includes 
the  correct  answer  for   subsequent   questions,   the   Examiner   will 
silently  score  the  candidate  "4"  on  those  subsequent  questions  with- 
out asking  them. 

For  example, 

1.  Q.  What  is  that? 
A.  Arrester. 

2.  Q.  What  kind  of  arrester  is  that? 
A.  Aluminum. 

3.  Q.  What  is  that  arrester  used  for? 
A.  Protection  against  lightning. 

If  the  candidate  should  answer  in  response  to  the  first  question: 
"Aluminum  arrester  to  protect  against  lightning,"  then  the  Examiner 
should  score  the  candidate  "4"  on  all  three  questions  without  stating 
the  last  two  questions. 

RATING 

i.  The  candidate  will  be  rated  according  to  the  instructions  given 
in  each  test. 

Criticism  of  the  Picture  Test  Method 

Although  the  picture  tests  were  not  used  as  extensively  as 
were  the  oral  tests,  from  the  experience  derived  from  the  pro- 
cess of  standardization  and  from  application  in  the  camps  it  is 
possible  to  weigh,  in  a  tentative  manner,  the  relative  advan- 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     195 

tages  and  disadvantages  of  this  type  of  examination.  Several 
of  these  advantages  have  been  discussed  incidentally  in  connec- 
tion with  the  reasons  for  the  adoption  of  this  method  of  exami- 
nation. It  will,  however,  be  convenient  to  collect  here  some 
of  the  more  valuable  features  of  this  method. 

Advantages  of  the  Picture  Tests 

1.  The  picture  test  approximates  more  closely  to  the  actual 
situation  in  the  trade. 

2.  The  tradesman  has  more  confidence  in  the  method;    it 
appears  to  him  to  be  much  more  practical  than  the  purely  oral 
method. 

3.  The  picture  test  admits  of  more  intricate  questions. 

4.  It  is  less  subject  to  coaching. 

5.  The  picture  will  often  call  forth  a  piece  of    information 
which  the  tradesman  might  be  unable  to  recollect  without  the 
association  value  of  the  picture. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  state  that  repeatedly,  when  oral 
tests  were  given,  the  men  themselves  suggested  that  the  method 
of  examination  would  have  been  improved  if  pictures  had  been 
used.  In  the  opinion  of  the  author,  this  is  the  main  advantage 
derived.  Generally  speaking,  the  picture  tests  did  not  differen- 
tiate between  different  trade  levels  with  any  greater  degree  of 
accuracy  than  did  the  oral  questions.  They  did,  however, 
establish  an  understanding  between  the  examiner  and  the 
tradesman  which  was  sometimes  not'ceably  lacking  in  the 
case  of  the  oral  tests.  Though  in  by  far  the  majority  of  cases 
the  candidates  were  certain  that  the  oral  tests  were  fair,  in  a 
few  cases  the  examiner  could  not  help  noticing  that  the  man 
felt  that  he  had  been  given  a  very  theoretical  examination. 
Even  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  this  idea  was  erroneous,  in 
view  of  the  rigorous  standardization  to  which  the  oral  tests  were 


196  'TRADE    TESTS 

subjected,  it  is  a  human  factor  which  must  not  be  overlooked. 
Considering  the  importance  of  human  relationships  in  industry 
it  would  seem  that  even  a  slightly  inferior  type  of  examination 
which  appeals  to  the  workman  as  essentially  practical  is  of 
greater  value  than  a  more  accurate  measuring  device  which 
arouses  suspicion  as  to  its  fairness  or  practicality. 

Disadvantages  of  Picture  Test 

1 .  The  construction  of  the  test  is  more  laborious  in  so  far  as 
pictures,  diagrams  or  photographs  have  to  be  procured. 

2.  The  cost  of  production  is  greater. 

3.  It  is  more  awkward  to  give,  and  takes  a  longer  time  than 
an  equal  number  of  oral  questions. 

4.  There  is  a  greater  danger  of  unfamiliarity,  due  to  the  fact 
that   the  machine  or  tool  or  process  pictured  is  not  identical 
with  that  used  by  the  tradesman. 

5.  The  pictures  are  themselves  liable  to  get  out  of  date;  that 
is,  ten  years'  progress  in  a  trade  would  throw  out  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  the  picture  questions  than  of  oral  questions. 

6.  Many  men  of  less  intelligence  are  not  accustomed  to  read- 
ing diagrams  or  interpreting  pictures.     As  we  have  already 
stated,   a   combination   of  words   and  pictures  might  appear 
to   be  an   easier   form   of   examination    than    that    furnished 
by   words    alone.      That    is,    the  pictures    might    clarify    the 
meaning    of    the    words.     This    assumption,     however,    was 
not  verified  by  practice,   except   in   the   case  of   the   expert. 
Often   the   picture   makes   it   more   difficult   for    the   man   to 
focus  his   attention   on   the   question   which   is   being    asked, 
for  he  tends  to  study  the  whole  picture  and  his  thoughts 
are  diffused  over  a  wide  area.     With   the  less   skilled   and 
less  educated,  particularly  where   there   is  a   slight   language 
difficulty,  the  pictures  seem  in  one  way  or  another  to  com- 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     197 

plicate  the  mental  process.  It  was  found  that  the  lower 
type  of  man,  in  the  attempt  to  direct  his  attention  simul- 
taneously to  the  words  of  the  question  and  to  the  picture, 
became  confused.  For  such  men  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  oral  method  of  examination  is  superior. 

7.  Where  several  questions  depend  on  a  single  picture,  the 
failure  to  recognize  this  picture  unfairly  penalizes  the  can- 
didate. 

It  would  appear  that  the  advantages  of  both  the  oral  method 
and  the  picture  method  could  be  combined.  The  use  of  pictures 
in  a  few  questions  would  not  only  establish  confidence  in  the 
form  of  examination,  but  it  would  also  enable  certain  very 
valuable  questions  to  be  asked  which  could  not  be  introduced 
in  the  oral  examination. 

These  methods  of  examination  are  so  recent  that  much 
further  experimentation  will  be  necessary  before  final  judgments 
can  be  given.  Either  method  supplies  a  device  which  is  infinitely 
superior  to  any  that  has  been  previously  employed  to  meet  the 
conditions,  but  a  correct  balance  can  only  be  the  outcome  of 
much  further  trial  in  the  every  day  routine  of  varied  industrial 
plants. 

Representative  Picture  Tests 

The  following  picture  tests,  taken  from  diverse  trades,  illus- 
trate the  method  of  application  of  the  principles  described: 

Carpenter.     General. 

Electrician.     General  and  Switchboard  Tender  (A.C.). 

Electrician.    Lead  Storage  Battery. 

Machinist.     Lathe  Operator. 

Blacksmith.     Horseshoer. 

Boilermaker.     Locomotive. 

Leather  Worker.    Cobbler. 

Welder.    Gas  Welder. 


198 


TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE   TEST 
CARPENTER.  —  General 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF   PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

PICTURE   1 

1.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Jack  (fore)  (joiner)  plane. 

PICTURE  2 

2.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Spoke  shave. 

PICTURE   3 


3.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 

A.   Saw  clamp  (vise). 


PICTURE  4 


4.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Draw  knife. 


PICTURE   5 

5.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Ripping  (prying)  chisel. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD 
PICTURE   6 


6.    Q.  What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Center  bit. 


PICTURE   7 


7.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Bevel  gauge  ("fence"). 


8.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Scraper. 

PICTURE  9 

9.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Saw  set. 

PICTURE   10 

10.    Q.   What  kind  of  a  chisel  is  that? 
A.    Mortise  (frame). 

PICTURE   11 


11.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Mitre. 


PICTURE  8 


PICTURE   12 


12.    Q.   What  kind  of  a  hatchet  is  that? 
A.    Lathe  (shingle). 


200  TRADE    TESTS 

PICTURE   13 

13.  Q.  What  kind  of  a  joint  is  that? 
A.    Halved  (cross  lap). 

PICTURE    14 

14.  Q.   What  kind  of  nailing  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Toe. 

PICTURE   15 

15.  Q.   What      does      "  W.S." 

mean? 
A.    Wall  stringer. 

16.  Q.   What  part  of  the  step  is 

that  at  C? 
A.    Rise. 

17.  Q.  What  do  you  call  the  part 

of  the  step  at  B? 
A.    Tread  (run). 

18.  Q.   What  do  you  call  D? 
A.    Nosing. 

PICTURE   16 

19.  Q.   What  kind  of  jointing  is  that? 

A.    Slip  tongued  (feather  and  grooved, 
matched). 

PICTURE    17 

20.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  rafters  at 

"  O-A,  O-B  and  O-C  "? 
A.    Valley. 

21.  Q.  What  do  you  call  the  rafters  at 

"  O-D,  O-F,  and  O-E  »? 
A.    Ridge. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     201 
PICTURE   18 


22.  Q.  Where  is  the  sill? 
A.  I. 

23.  Q.  Where  are  the  studs? 
A.  A. 

24.  Q.  Where  is  the  sheathing? 
A.  C. 

25.  Q.  Where  is  the  water  table? 
A.  H. 


IDENTIFICATION   OF   DIFFERENT     KINDS   OF  WOOD 

Say  to  the  candidate:  "Here  are  a  number  of  different  kinds  of 
wood.  Tell  me  the  name  of  each  kind.  Begin  with  number  i  and 
go  right  through." 


26.  (i) 

27-  (2) 

28.  (3) 

29-  (4) 

30-  (5) 

31-  (6) 

32-  (7) 

33-  (8) 

34-  (9) 

35-  (10)  A. 

36-  (n)  A. 

37-  (12)  A. 

38.  (13)  A. 

39.  (14)  A. 

40.  (15)  A. 


White  Pine. 

Hackmatack  (Larch)  (Tamarack). 

Cypress. 

Basswood. 

Maple. 

Cherry. 

Elm  (Butternut). 

Ash. 

Chestnut. 

Oak. 

Red  Oak. 

Gum  (Hazel)  wood. 

Walnut. 

Mahogany  (Baywood). 

Teak  (Pasanda). 


202  TRADE    TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  RATER 

Score  Rating 

108  to  160  both  inclusive E 

60  to  107  both  inclusive J 

24  to  59  both  inclusive A 

o  to  23  both  inclusive N 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     203 


TRADE   TEST 

ELECTRICIAN.  —  Generator  and  Switchboard 

Tender 

(A.  c.) 

oO 


COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

PICTURE    1 

1.  Q.   What  is  that  machine  used  for? 

A.    (i)  To    convert    Direct    Current    (D.C.)    into    Alternating 

Current  (A.C.). 
(2)  A.C.  to  D.C.  (One  sufficient) 

2.  Q.   How  do  you  know  that  the  A.C.  end  is  at  B? 
A.    (i)  Slip  rings. 

(2)  Connecting  rings.  (One  sufficient) 

3.  Q.   How  many  phases  has  that  machine? 
A.    Three. 


204 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   2 
4.    Q.   What  does  that  picture  represent? 


6. 


6. 


(1)  Alternator. 

(2)  Generator. 

What  do  you  call  the  machine  at 

Exciter. 

What  is  the  exciter  used  for? 

(1)  To  supply  field  current. 

(2)  Excite  the  field. 


(One  sufficient) 


B"? 


(One  sufficient) 


7.    Q.   Where  is  the  exciter  current  put  into  the  field? 


A. 


(1)  At  "A." 

(2)  Slip  rings. 


(One  sufficient) 


8. 


PICTURE 

What  do  you  call  that? 
(i)  Disconnecting  switch. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     205 


13. 


14. 


(One  sufficient^ 


10. 


'(2)  Knife  switch. 

(3)  High  tension  switch. 
Q.   What  kind  of  insulator  is  that? 
A.    Petticoat. 

Q.   What  is  the  purpose  of  the  irregular  surface  of  an  insulator? 
A.    (i)  To  increase  the  creepage  distance. 

(2)  Long  path. 

(3)  To  increase  surface. 


(4)  Moisture. 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   4 


11.  Q.  That  diagram 
shows  two  alter- 
nators  to  be 
synchronized. 
How  would  you 
tell  when  to  close 

ABfcMH 

the  main  switch? 
A.    When  lamps  are  dark. 


PICTURE   6 


-D 


What  does  that  picture  represent? 

(1)  Oil  switch. 

(2)  Circuit  breaker. 
What  is  shown  at  "A"? 
Insulator. 

What  is  the  rod  at  "  C  "  made  of? 
Wood. 


(One  sufficient) 


206 


TRADE    TESTS 
PICTURE  6 


15.  Q.  What  do  you  call  that? 
A.  Regulator. 

16.  Q.  What  is  shown  at  "  A  "  in  that  picture? 
A.  Motor. 

PICTURE   7 

17.  Q.  What  is  that? 
A.  Circuit  breaker. 


PICTURE   8 


18.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    (i)  Starting  box. 

(2)  Rheostat.  (One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   9 

19.    Q.   What  kind  of  transformer  is  that? 
A.    Current  transformer. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     207 

PICTURE   10 


20.    Q.   What  kind  of  transformer  is  that? 
A.    (i)  Potential  transformer. 
(2)  Voltage  transformer. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE    11 


21.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Shunt. 


PICTURE   1? 


22.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Choke  coil. 


23.    Q.   What  is  the  part  at  "A 

used  for? 
A.    Tighten  belt. 


PICTURE    13 


208 


TRADE    TESTS 
PICTURE  14 


24.    Q.   What  kind  of  wattmeter  is  that? 
A.    (i)  Recording. 

(2)  Integrating.    (One  sufficient") 


PICTURE   15 


26.    Q.   What  is  that? 
A.    Field  coil. 


Q.   What  do  you  call  that 
instrument? 

A.    (i)  Synchroscope. 

(2)  Synchronism     indi- 
cator. (One  sufficient) 


PICTURE  16 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     209 
PICTURE   17 

That  is  a  wiring  diagram  for  a  three-phase  generator  panel.    Study 
the  connections  and  identify  the  following  parts: 


27.  Q. 

A. 

28.  Q. 

A. 

29.  Q. 

A. 

30.  Q. 

A. 

31.  Q. 

A. 

32.  Q. 

A. 

33.  Q. 

A. 

34.  Q. 
A. 


What  is  shown  at 

"A"? 
Field  switch. 

What  is  shown  at 
"B»? 

Field  rheostat. 

What  is  shown  at 

«   Q  »»? 

Shunt. 

What  is  shown  at 
"D"? 

Voltmeter. 

What  is  shown  at 

«E»? 
Ammeter. 

What  is  shown  at 

«F"? 
Field  ammeter. 

What  is  shown  at 
«G»? 

Current     transfor- 
mer. 

What  is  shown  at 

"  K"? 
Oil  switch. 


210 


TRADE   TESTS 
PICTURE  18 


35.    Q.   What   kind   of   regulator   is 

that? 
A.   Tirrill. 


PICTURE    19 


36.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Arrester. 

37.  Q.   What  kind  of  an  arrester 

is  that? 
A.    (i)  Aluminum. 

(One  sufficient) 
(2)  Electrolytic. 

38.  Q.   What  is  it  used  for? 

A.  (i)  Lightning  protection. 
(2)  High  tension  short 
circuits. 

(One  sufficient) 


THE   PICTURE   TRADE   TEST    METHOD 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

o  to  16  inclusive Novice 

20  to  60  inclusive Apprentice 

64  to  124  inclusive   Journeyman 

128  to  152  inclusive Expert 


212 


TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 
ELECTRICIAN.  —  Lead  Storage  Battery 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


Supports  •/ 


Main  Line  (Direct  Current)    \    ' — =* <j    n    i 


PICTURE   1 


1.  Q.  What  is  being  done  in  that  picture? 
A.  Charging. 

2.  Q.  What  is  at  "A"? 

A.  Voltmeter.    (Note:   "Voltmeter  or  ammeter"  is  wrong.) 

3.  Q.  What  is  at  "B"? 

A.    Ammeter.     (Note:  "Voltmeter  or  ammeter"  is  wrong.) 

4.  Q.  What  is  at  "  C  "? 
A.    (i)  Rheostat. 

(2)  Resistance. 

(One  sufficient) 

(Note:  "Starting  box"  or  "Controller"  is  wrong.) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     213 

PICTURE   2 

5.  Q.    What  is  that  apparatus  used  for? 
A.    Burning. 

6.  Q.   What  is  supplied  at  "  A  "? 

A.    (i)  Gas. 

(2)  Hydrogen. 


7.  Q.   What  is  in  the  tank  at  "  B  "? 

A.    (i)  Oxygen. 

(2)  Air. 

8.  Q.   What  is  at  "  D  "? 

A.    (i)  Pressure  gauge. 

(2)  Pressure  meter. 

(3)  Pressure  indicator. 


(One  sufficient) 


(One  sufficient) 


(Note:  "Pressure  regulator"  is  wrong.) 


214 


TRADE   TESTS 
PICTURE  3 


9.  Q.  How  many  volts  would 
you  get  from  that  arrange- 
ment if  each  cell  gives  two 


volts? 
A.    Two. 


10.    Q.   How  many  volts  would  you 
get  from  that  arrangement 
if  each  cell  gives  two  volts? 
A.    Eight. 


PICTUI 

ild  you 
jement 

V    TT^Ur.? 

IE  4 

% 

.  ®> 

\ 

ST\ 
^J7 

/T\ 
vxA^. 

PICTURE   5 


11.    Q.   How    many    volts    would 
you  get  from  that  arrange- 
ment if  each  cell  gives  two 
volts? 
A.    Four. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     215 
PICTURE  6 


12.    Q.   How    many    volts    would 
you  get  from  that  arrange- 
ment if  each  cell  gives  two 
volts? 
A.    Four. 


13.    Q.   What  is  that? 
A.    Handle. 


PICTURE   7 


PICTURE  8 


14.    Q.   What  make  of  battery  are  those  plates 

for? 
A.    Edison. 


216 


15.    Q.   What  is  that? 
A.    Vent. 


TRADE    TESTS 
PICTURE  9 

PICTURE   10 


16.  Q.   What  do  you  call  those  cross  pieces  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar? 
A.    (i)  Bridge. 

(2)  Ribs. 

(One  sufficient) 

17.  Q.  What  is  the  purpose  of  those  cross 

pieces  at  the  bottom  of  the  jar? 
A.    (i)  Collect  sediment. 

(2)  Prevent  short  circuit  (Short). 

(One  sufficient) 

PICTURE   11 

18.  Q.   What  kind  of  wrench  is 

that? 

A.    (i)  Ratchet. 
(2)  Socket. 

(One  sufficient) 

PICTURE   12 


19.    Q.  What  car  has  that  assembly  of 

batteries? 
A.    Maxwell. 


PICTURE   13 


20.    Q.   What  car  has  that  assembly  of 

batteries? 
A.    Packard. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     217 
PICTURE   14 


21.  Q.  What  is  that? 
A.  Separator. 

22.  Q.  What  is  that  separator  made  of? 
A.  Wood. 


J 


PICTURE   15 


23.  Q.  Why  is  that  torch 
applied  at  the  top  of 
the  jar? 

A.    (i)  To    soften    com- 
pound. 

(2)  To    remove     the 
plates. 

(One  sufficient) 


24. 


PICTURE  16 

What  caused  the  damage  to  that  plate? 
A.      (i)  High  temperature. 

(2)  Short  circuit. 

(3)  Overload. 

(4)  Heavy  charge  or  discharge. 

(5)  Sulphation. 

(6)  Separator  broken. 

(7)  Frozen  battery. 

(8)  Overcharging. 

(9)  Undercharging. 

(10)  Vibration.  (One  sufficient) 

(Note:  "Age"  is  insufficient.) 
25.    Q.   What  would  you  do  with  a  plate  like  that? 
A.    Discard  it 


218 


TRADE    TESTS 


\ 


PICTURE    17 
"A"? 


26.  Q.   What  is  shown  at 
A.    Fuse. 

27.  Q.   What  are  the  lamps  at  "  B  "  used  for? 
A.   (i)  Resistance. 

(2)  Rheostat. 

(3)  Regulate  current. 

28.  Q.  What  kind  of  current  is  supplied  at  "  C  "? 
A.    Direct  current  (DC). 


PICTURE   18 

29.  Q.  What  is  that? 
A.    Rectifier. 

30.  Q.   What   kind  of  rectifier   does   that 

picture  show? 
A.    (i)  Mercury. 

(2)  Cooper-Hewitt.  (One  sufficient) 

31.  Q.   What  is  a  rectifier  used  for? 

A.    To  change  alternating  current  (AC) 
to  direct  current  (DC)  or  vice  versa. 


(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     219 


RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

o  to    32  inclusive  —  Novice. 
36  to    64  inclusive  —  Apprentice. 
68  to    96  inclusive  —  Journeyman, 
loo  to  124  inclusive  —  Expert. 


220 


TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 
MACHINIST.  —  Lathe  Operator 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON   CLASSIFICA   ION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


PICTURE   1 

1.  Q.'  What  do  you  call  those  chucks? 
A.    (a)  4-jaw  chuck  (Independent). 

(b)  3- jaw  chuck  (Universal). 

(c)  Drill  chuck. 


(All  three  required) 


PICTURE   2 

2.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that  mechanism? 
A.    Taper  attachment. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     221 
PICTURE  3 


3.  Q.   What    is    the   pur- 
pose  of  those  two 
gears  A  and  B? 
A.  Reverse. 


PICTURE  4 

4:  Q.  What  kind  of  lathe  is  that? 
A.    Turret. 

PICTURE   5 
5.  Q.   What     kind     of 

chuck  is  that? 
A.  (i)  Spring  chuck. 

(2)  "Draw-in" 
chuck. 

(3)  Collet. 

(4)  Split. 


(One  sufficient) 


222 


6.  Q.   What  is  being  done  in 

that  picture? 
A.    Locating  center. 

7.  Q.  What   do  you    call  the 

device  at  B? 
A.    V-block. 


TRADE    TESTS 

PICTURE   6 

A 


PICTURE    7 


8.  Q.  Why  do  you  have 
the  two  gears  at  A 
and  A? 

A.    (i)  Reverse  feed. 
(a)  Right  and  left 
hand  thread. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   8 

9.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  tool  between  the  centers? 

A.   Tap. 
10.  Q.   What  is  the  attachment  on  that  lathe  used  for? 

A.    (i)  "  Backing  off." 

(2)  Relieving. 

(3)  Clearance.  (One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    223 

SCALE. 


PICTURE   9 

11.  Q.   What  is  the  reading  on  that  vernier? 
A.    (i)  1.205  to  1.207. 
(2)  205  to  270. 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE    10 

12.  Q.   What  should  be  the  dimension  at  A? 
A.    3'. 

13.  Q.   Why  do  they  have  two  dimensions  at  B? 
A.    (i)  Maximum  and  minimum. 

(Note:  Accept  any  equivalent  answer.) 

(2)  Tolerance. 

(3)  Allowance  of  0.004". 

(4)  For  limit  gages. 


(One  sufficient) 


224 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   11 

14.  Q.   For  what  kind  of  work  do  you  use  the  dial  at  A? 
A.    Cutting  threads. 


PICTURE   12 

15.  Q.   How  do  you  get  the  lace  tight  on  the  face  plate? 
A.    Loosen  face  plate  before  lacing. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    2*5 
PICTURE    13 


D 


16.  Q.   Name  the  tools  in  that  picture 
A.    (a)  Diamond  point. 

(b)  Cutting-off  (Parting). 

(c)  Boring  Tool. 

(d)  Side  Tool  (Facing). 

(e)  Centering  Tool. 


PICTURE   14 

17.  Q.   What  is  the  purpose 

of  the  part  F? 
A.    Counterbalance 
(Balance). 


PICTURE   15 

18.  Q.   What  is  the  use  of  the  recess  C? 
A.    (i)  Prevent     breaking      (jam- 
ming) tool. 
(2)  Clearance. 

(One  sufficient) 


226 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   16 

19.  Q.   Name  the  gages  in  that  picture. 
A.    (a)  Center  Gage. 

(b)  Depth  Gage. 

(c)  Drill  Gage  (Wire  Gage). 

(d)  Feeler  (Thickness)  Gage. 

(e)  Radius  (Curve)  Gage.    . 

(f )  Snap  Gage. 

(g)  Surface  Gage, 
(h)  Thread  Gage, 
(i)   Wire  Gage. 


(All  nine  required) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     227 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

o  to  16  inclusive Novice 

20  to  40  inclusive Apprentice 

44  to  60  inclusive Journeyman 

64  to  76  inclusive Expert 


228 


TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 

BLACKSMITH.  —  Horseshoer 
PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


PICTURE   1 


1.    Q.   What    is    the     dif- 
ference     between 
those  shoes? 
A.    "A"    is    fullered 
(creased). 

"B"  is  hand  made 
(stamped) . 

(Both  required) 


B 


PICTURE   2 


2.    Q.   Why  do  you  put  on  that  kind  of 

shoe? 
A.    To  prevent  interfering. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    229 
PICTURE  3 


3.    Q.   What  kind  of  a  shoe  is  that? 
A.    Toe  weight. 


PICTURE   4 


4.    Q.  What  do  you  call  that? 

A.  Pad. 

6.    Q.  Why  are  they  used? 

A.  Sore  feet. 


PICTURE   5 


6.   Q.  When  do  you  use  a  shoe  like  that? 
A.    Mule. 


PICTURE   6 


7.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    (i)  Racing  plate. 
(2)  Trotting. 

(One  sufficient) 


230 


8.    Q.   What  is  the  difference     /* 

between  those  shoes? 
A.    "A"  is  front  shoe. 
"B"  is  hind  shoe. 

(Both  required) 


PICTURE   8 

Q.   That  is  a  picture  of  a  hoof  plate. 

What  is  it  made  of? 
A.    (i)  Canvas. 

(2)  Leather. 

(3)  Rubber. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   9 


10.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Trotting  plate. 


PICTURE   10 

11.    Q.  When  do  you  use  that  kind  of 

shoe? 
A.    Winter. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    231 

PICTURE   11 

12.  Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Pritchel. 

PICTURE   12 

13.  Q.  What  do  you  call  that 

tool? 

A.    (i)  Clinch  tongs. 
(2)  Clinch  puller 

(One  sufficient) 

PICTURE   13 

14.  Q.   What  kind  of  hammer 

is  that? 

A.    (i)  Fitting  hammer. 
(2)  Sharpening      ham- 
mer. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   14 


15.    Q.   What  kind  of  hammer 

is  that? 
A.    Driving. 


PICTURE   15 


16.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that? 
A.    Tongs. 


PICTURE    16 


17.  Q.  What  do  you  call  that? 
A.  Buffer. 

18.  Q.  What  is  that  used  for? 
A.  Cut  clinches. 


232 


TRADE    TESTS 
PICTURE   17 


19.  Q.   What  do  you  call  those  tools? 
A.    Hardies. 

20.  Q.   What    is    the    difference    between 

them? 

A.    (i)  A  is  straight  bardie. 
(2)  B  is  round  hardie. 

(Both  required) 


B 


PICTURE   18 

21.  Q.   What  do  you  call  those  tools? 
A.    Chisels. 

22.  Q.   What    is   the    difference   between    those 

tools? 

A.    (i)  A  is  cold  chisel. 
(2)  B  is  hot  chisel. 

(Both  required) 


B 


PICTURE   19 


23.    Q.   How  should  that  foot  be  shod? 
A.    (i)  Concave  shoe. 

(2)  Wide  shoe. 

(3)  Bar' shoe. 

(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    233 
PICTURE  20 


24.  Q.  What  part  of  the  foot  is  at  1? 
A.  Frog. 

25.  Q.  What  part  of  the  foot  is  at  3? 
A.  Bar. 

26.  Q.  What  part  is  at  4? 
A.  Wall. 


PICTURE  21 


27.    Q.   What  is  the  condition  of  that  foot? 
A.    Contracted  foot. 


PICTURE   22 


28.    Q.   What  do  you  call  that  device  inside 

the  hoof? 

A.    (i)  Hoof  expander. 
(2)  Spring. 

(One  sufficient) 


234 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE  23 

29.  Q.   What  is  the  condition  of  that  foot 

at  "  A  »? 
A.    Quarter  crack. 

30.  Q.  What  has  been  done  at  "  A  "? 
A.    Clamped. 

31.  Q.  What  has  been  done  at  "  B  "? 
A.    Nailed. 

PICTURE  24 

32.  Q.  How  should  those  feet  be  shod? 
A.    (i)  Outside  of  foot  weighted. 

(2)  Side  weight. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   25 

33.  Q.  What  is  the  condition  of  that 

foot? 

A.    (i)  Foundered. 
(2)  Laminated. 

(One  sufficient) 

34.  Q.   How  should  that  foot  be  shod? 
A.    (i)  Concave  shoe. 

(2)  Bar  shoe. 

(3)  Remove  pressure  on  sole. 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE  26 


35.    Q.   What  is  the  condition  of  that 

foot? 
A.    (i)  Cracked  walls. 

(2)  Seedy- 

(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     235 
PICTURE   27 


36.    Q.   What  is  that? 
A.    (i)  Toolbox. 
(2)  Shoeing  box. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   28 


37.  Q.    What  do  you  call  that? 
A.  Stocks. 

38.  Q.   When  are  they  used? 
A.   Unruly  horses. 


39. 


PICTURE   29 


Q.   What  is  that? 
A.    Toe  calk. 


THE   CANDIDATE 

Rating 
Novice 
56  to    76  inclusive  .........................  Apprentice 

80  to  108  inclusive  .........................  Journeyman 

112  to  156  inclusive  .........................  Expert 


RATING 

Score 
o  to    52  inclusive 


236 


TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 
BOILERMAKER.  —  Locomotive 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


PICTURE   1 

1.  Q.   What  are  the  large  holes  in  that  sheet  for? 
A.    Superheater  tubes  (flues)  (units). 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    237 

2.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  space  between  the  holes? 
A.    (i)  Bridges. 

(2)  Pitch. 

(3)  Ligaments.  (One  sufficient) 

3.  Q.   How  do  you  repair  a  crack  in  that  sheet? 
A.    (i)  Cut  (chip)  (V)  out  and  weld. 

(2)  Weld. 

(3)  Patch  (plug).  (One  sufficient) 

4.  Q.  What  part  of  that  is  the  combustion  chamber? 
A.    (i)  B  (A). 

(2)  From  flue  sheet  back. 

(3)  Between  flue  sheet  and  firebox.  (One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   2 

5.  Q.   What  is  that  man  doing? 
A.    Caulking. 

6.  Q.   What  is  that  operation  for? 

A.    (i)  Make  it  steam  tight  (stop  leak). 

(2)  Tighten  sheet.  (One  sufficient) 

7.  Q.  What   must   you   usually   do   to   the  edge  of  a  sheet  before 

caulking  it? 
A.    (i)  Chip. 

(2)  Bevel.  (One  sufficient) 


238  TRADE    TESTS 

8.  Q.   What   may  happen   if   the  holding  rivets  are  too  far  from 

the  edge  of  the  sheet? 
A.    (i)  Cause  leakage. 

(2)  Caulking  edge  (lap)  lift  (sheet  turn  up). 

(3)  Drive  sheet  off  ring. 

(4)  Undermine  sheet  (sheet  loosen).  (One  sufficient) 

9.  Q.   What  part  of  the  boiler  is  that  man  working  on? 
A.    (i)  Mud  ring. 

(2)  Right  front  corner.  (One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   3 

10.  Q.  What  do  you  call  that  tool? 
A.    (i)  Expander. 

(2)  Prosser.  (One  sufficient; 

11.  Q.  At  what  point  on  fig.  5  would  that  tool  be  applied? 
A.    (i)  G  (K). 

(2)  Firebox  end. 

(3)  Rear  (back)  end  (of  flue).  (One  sufficient) 

12.  Q.   What  risk  is  there  in  using  that  tool  on  running  repairs? 
A.    (i)  Break  (crack)  (fracture)  tubes. 

(2)  Burst  flues.  (One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     239 


PICTURE  4 

13.  Q.  What  are  those  men  tapping? 
A.  Staybolts. 

14.  Q.  What  part  of  the  boiler  does  that  show? 
A.  Side  sheet. 


240  TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   5 

15.  Q.   What  special  equipment  is  shown  there? 
A.    Superheater. 

16.  Q.   What  change  must  be  made  in  the  boiler   to    put  in  that 

special  equipment? 
A.    (i)  New  flue  sheets  (heads). 

(2)  Change  front  and  back  flue  sheets, 
(round  head  and  V  head) ' 

(One  sufficient) 

17.  Q.   Why  are  those  tubes  smaller  at  G? 

A.    (i)  Not  room  enough  (large  hole  takes  too  much  of  sheet). 

(2)  Give  larger  bridge  space  (not  to  weaken  sheet). 

(3)  Large  size  not  necessary  (no  superheater  units  at  G). 

(4)  Copper  ferrule. 

(One  sufficient) 

18.  Q.  What  are  the  small  pipes  inside  the  large  ones  for? 
A.,    (i)  Superheat  steam. 

(2)  Dry  steam. 

(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     241 


PICTURE   6 

19.  Q.  What  is  the  purpose  of  tube  E? 
A.  Arch  (bridge). 

20.  Q.  What  is  being  done  in  that  picture? 
A.  Cleaning. 

21.  Q.  What  is  the  part  at  D  which  rests  on  the  tubes? 
A.  (i)  Brick  arch. 

(2)  Arch  brick. 

(3)  Brick.  (One  sufficient) 

22.  Q.   How  can  you  tell  from  that  picture  that  the  locomotive  has  a 

superheater? 
A.    (i)  Large  (superheater)  flues  (tubes). 

(2)  Brick  arch. 

(3)  C. 

(4)  Spacing  of  tubes.  (One  sufficient) 

23.  Q.   What  tool  would  be  used  for  applying  tube  E  to  a  firebox? 
A.    (i)  Roller. 

(2)  Expander. 

(3)  Beading.  (One  sufficient) 

24.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  part  at  G? 
A.    Throat  sheet. 

25.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  part  at  F? 
A.    (i)  Back  head. 

(2)  Door.  (One  sufficient) 


242  TRADE    TESTS 

26.  Q.   What  causes  tubes  to  blister? 
A.    Dirt  (mud)  (sediment)  (scale). 

27.  Q.   When  tubes  become  blistered,  what  must  be  done? 
A.    Replace  (renew)  (remove). 

(ORAL) 

28.  Q.   In  testing  a  boiler,  why  is  it  better  to  use  water  than  steam? 
A.    (i)  Find  leaks  better. 

(2)  Safer. 

(Both  required) 

RATING  THE   CANDIDATE 

1.  Score  each  answer  4  or  o.     Give  no  partial  credits. 

2.  Rate  the  candidate  according  to  the  following  table: 

Score  Rating 

o  to    36  inclusive N 

40  to    68  inclusive A 

72  to    96  inclusive .  .  : J 

100  to  112  inclusive.  .  .  .E 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     243 

TRADE  TEST 
LEATHER  WORKER.  —  Cobbler 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


PICTURE    1 

1.    Q.   What  is  this  knife  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Rounding  sole  (welt). 
(2)  Trimming  sole  (welt). 
(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   2 


2.    Q.   What  is  this  knife  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Skiving. 
(2)  Uppers. 

(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE  3 


3.    Q.   What  is  this  knife  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Soles. 
(2)  Skiving. 

(One  sufficient) 


244 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE  4 

4.  Q.   What  is  the  name  of  this? 
A.    Last  hook. 

5.  Q.   What  is  it  used  for? 

A.    Pulling  (taking)  out  lasts. 

PICTURE   5 

6.  Q.   What  kind  of  an  awl  is 


A. 


this? 

(1)  Sewing. 

(2)  Stitching. 


Score  4 
Score  o 


PICTURE 
Q.   What  is  this? 
A.    (i)  Burnisher.- 

(2)  Heel  iron. 

(3)  Burnishing  iron. 

(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     245 


10. 


11. 


PICTURE 

Q.   What  is  this  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Burnishing  heels. 

(2)  Finishing  heels. 

(3)  First  (roughing)  work. 

PICTURE  8 
Q.   What  is  this? 
A.    (i)  Cutter. 

(2)  Biter. 

(3)  Nail  cutter. 

(4)  Nail  nippers. 

(One  sufficient) 
Q.   What  is  it  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Cutting  nails. 
(2)  Breaking  nails. 

PICTURE  9 


(One  sufficient) 


Q.   What  do  you  use  this  for? 
A.    (i)  Closing  uppers. 

(2)  Hand  stitching. 

(3)  Sewing  soles. 

PICTURE 

12.  Q.  What  is  this? 

A.    Peg  (pegging)  awl. 

13.  Q.   What  is  it  used  for? 

A.    (i)  Making  holes  for  pegs. 

(2)  Wood  pegs. 

(3)  Wood  nails  (tacks). 


(One  sufficient) 


(One  sufficient) 


10 


(One  sufficient) 


246 


14. 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   11 


Q.  What  do  you  use  this  for? 
A.    (i)  Clamping  heels. 

(2)  Holding  heels. 

(3)  Wood  heels. 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE    12 

15.   Q.   What  is  this  used  for? 
A.    (i)  Finishing  heel  (seats). 
(2)  Marking  heel  (seats). 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE   13 


16.    Q.   What  is  the  name  of  this? 
A.    (i)  Edge  shave. 

(2)  Edge  trimmer. 

(3)  Shave. 


(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    247 

'  V. 

ft 


PICTURE 


17.  Q.  This  is  a  side  of  leather, 

(a)  From  what  part  do  you  get  heel  stock? 

(b)  From  what  part  do  you  get  light  soles? 

(c)  From  what  part  do  you  get  insoles? 

(d)  From  what  part  do  you  get  prime  soles? 

A.    (a)  A.  and  D.    (b)  B.     (c)  A.  and  D.    (d)  C. 


PICTURE   15 

18.  Q.  This     picture 

shows    shoe    cut 
across. 

What  part  of  the 
shoe  do  you  call 
part  at  "  A  "? 
A.    Upper  (vamp). 

19.  Q.   What  is  the  name 

of  the  part  of  the 
shoe  at  "  B  "? 
A.    Lining. 

20.  Q.   What  do  you  call 

«  C  »? 
A.    Insole. 

21.  Q.   What    is     "  D " 

called? 
A.    Welt. 


(Any  3) 


248  TRADE    TESTS 

22.  Q.  What  is  "  G  "  called? 
A.  Filling. 

23.  Q.  What  parts  does  stitch  "  H  "  fasten  together? 
A.  Outsole  to  the  welt. 


RATING  THE  CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

o  to  20  both  inclusive Novice 

24  to  40  both  inclusive Apprentice 

44  to  72  both  inclusive Journeyman 

76  and  above Expert 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD    249 


TRADE  TEST 
WELDER.  —  Gas  Welder 

PICTURE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


PICTURE   1 

1.  Q.   What  kind  of  flame  is  shown  at  A? 
A.    (i)  Carbonizing. 

(2)  Excessive  acetylene. 

(3)  Crystallizing. 


(One  sufficient) 


250 


TRADE    TESTS 


2.  Q.  What  kind  of  flame  is  shown  at  B? 
A.    (i)  Neutral. 

(2)  Welding. 

3.  Q.  What  kind  of  flame  is  shown  at  C? 
A.    Oxidizing  (oxygen). 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE  2 

4.  Q.   Why  is  flux  used  in  welding  cast  iron? 
A.    (i)  Clean. 

(2)  Reduce  oxide  (remove  scale). 


(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     251 


PICTURE  3 

6.  Q.   Why  is  the  operation  in  that  picture  necessary? 
A.    (i)  Expansion  and  contraction. 


(2)  Crack. 


(One  sufficient) 


PICTURE  4 

6.  Q.   What  kind  of  pre-heating  is  being  used  there? 
A.    Charcoal. 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   5 
7.  Q.   What  would  happen  if  that  plate  were  not  held  open  during 

welding? 
A.    (i)  Over-lapping  (lap). 

(2)  Warp  (buckle).  (One  sufficient; 


PICTURE   6 

8.  Q.  What  is  the  material 
around  the  blow  pipe 
on  that  fender? 
A.    (i)-  Asbestos. 
(2)  Clay. 

(One  sufficient) 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD 


PICTURE   7 

9.  Q.  What  must  be  done  in  preparing  that  casting  for  welding? 
A.    (a)  Line  up  case  (fit  piece). 

(b)  Pre-heat.  (Both  required) 

10.  Q.   What  would  result  from  over-heating  that  casting? 
A.    (i)  Collapse. 

(2)  Crumbles.  (One  sufficient) 

PICTURE   8 


11.  Q.  What  is  wrong 
with  the  welding 
atB? 

A.    Burned       (Oxi- 
dized). 


254 


TRADE    TESTS 


PICTURE   9 


12.  Q.  What  kind  of  weld  is 

shown  at  A? 
A.    Lap. 

13.  Q.  What  kind   of    weld 

is  shown  at  B? 
A.    Butt  (end  to  end). 

14.  Q.  With  what  thickness 

of    metal    may  the 
weld  at  C  be  prop- 
erly used? 
A.   Thin.     (Light.) 


PICTURE   10 
15.  Q.  What  metal  should  be  used  as  a  filler  rod  hi  welding  parts 

A  and  B  together;  A  being  of  cast  iron  and  B  of  steel? 
A.    Cast  iron. 


PICTURE   11 

16.  Q.  What  is  the  relation  between  the  pressures  of  the  gas  and  air 

in  that  blow  pipe? 
A.    Air  (oxygen)  greater. 


THE    PICTURE    TRADE    TEST    METHOD     255 


PICTURE   12 

17.  Q.  What  are  those  blow  pipes  used  for? 
A.    Cutting. 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

Score  Rating 

o  to  12  inclusive N 

16  to  28  inclusive A 

32  to  48  inclusive J 

52  to  68  inclusive E 


SECTION  IV 
THE  PERFORMANCE  TRADE  TEST 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  GENERAL  NATURE  OF  THE  PERFORM- 
ANCE TEST  METHOD 

THE  performance  test  is  nothing  more  than  a  standardized, 
practical  trade  job,  involving  the  use  of  blue  prints,  material 
and  tools  characteristic  of  the  trade.  The  word  performance  is 
here  used  in  an  arbitrary  but  definite  way.  It  means  the  carry- 
ing out,  with  the  help  of  tools  and  equipment,  of  certain  proc- 
esses of  the  trade.  Strictly  speaking,  the  oral  and  picture 
tests  are  just  as  much  performances  as  an  actual  operation  of 
the  trade.  In  one  case  the  performance  is  largely  mental  —  the 
answer  being  oral;  in  the  other  case  the  performance  is  largely 
manual  —  the  operation  of  the  hand.  It  will,  however,  for  the 
purpose  of  presentation,  be  convenient  to  limit  the  use  of  the 
word  performance  exclusively  to  actual  work  done  under  con- 
ditions essentially  similar  to  those  found  in  the  trade. 

This  method  of  testing  is  more  closely  related  to  that  which 
has  been  used  in  industry  than  any  of  the  methods  previously 
described.  The  most  common  method,  after  the  preliminary 
interview  has  taken  place,  is  to  refer  the  applicant  to  that  de- 
partment in  which  he  claims  to  have  skill.  On  reaching  this 
department  the  actual  test  for  skill  may  be  of  two  kinds.  In 
one  case  the  tradesman  is  actually  put  to  work,  using  the  tools 
of  the  trade  in  the  actual  job  for  which  he  is  hired.  His  success 
or  failure  during  the  first  two  or  three  days  determines  whether 
he  has  the  necessary  skill.  Another  device,  less  frequently  em- 
ployed, is  to  try  the  man  out  on  a  single  representative  opera- 

259 


260  TRADE    TESTS 

tion  of  the  trade.  His  success  or  failure  in  this  one  typical  job 
is  used  as  an  index  for  estimating  his  total  trade  ability.  The 
advantage  of  this  second  method  is  found  in  the  fact  that  it 
gives  a  much  more  rapid  estimate  of  general  ability,  it  enables 
a  large  number  of  bluffers  to  be  rapidly  eliminated,  and  it  saves 
a  good  deal  of  waste  material  and  damaged  machinery.  It  is 
obviously  very  wasteful  to  put  a  man  directly  on  a  complex  job, 
involving  the  use  of  expensive  machines  and  much  material, 
when  a  representative  sample  job,  involving  few  tools  and  a 
small  amount  of  material,  can  be  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

When  it  became  necessary  to  give  some  form  of  test  to  trades- 
men in  the  army,  naturally  this  method  of  examination  was 
thoroughly  investigated  to  see  in  what  way  it  could  be  applied 
to  meet  army  requirements.  In  order  to  give  such  a  perform- 
ance test  two  conditions  are  necessary:  on  the  one  hand  the 
tools  and  the  material,  and  on  the  other,  an  expert  to  judge  the 
success  with  which  the  task  has  been  performed.  While  these 
conditions  are  automatically  secured  in  any  industry,  the  repro- 
duction of  these  conditions  for  hundreds  of  trades  in  all  the 
army  camps  obviously  presented  great  difficulties.  It  will  be  re- 
membered that  the  chief  requirements  of  the  army  situation  were : 

1.  The  method  must  be  such  that  it  can  be  employed  by  an 
intelligent  examiner  who  has  no  knowledge  of  the  trade. 

2.  The  method  must  yield  a  rating  which  is  objective. 

3.  The  method  must  be  rapid  and  inexpensive! 

The  question,  therefore,  facing  those  working  on  the  feasibility 
of  the  performance  test  was  to  construct  a  general  method 
whereby  the  tradesman  could  be  tested  in  a  straightforward, 
significant  job  which  would  require  a  sufficiently  simple  equip- 
ment to  admit  of  its  being  employed  without  undue  expense  in 
many  centers.  In  addition,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to 
work  out  a  system  which  would  enable  an  intelligent  examiner 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  261 

who  had  no  specific  trade  skill,  to  rate  the  candidates'  perform- 
ance in  an  objective  manner.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  much 
greater  difficulties  had  to  be  met  than  those  encountered  in 
the  construction  of  the  oral  or  picture  test. 

The  Advantages  of  the  Performance  Trade  Test  Methods 

The  performance  test  method  possesses  so  many  advantages 
that  it  was  well  worth  the  time  to  investigate  whether  or  not 
the  obstacles  could  be  surmounted.  Many  occupations  exist 
in  which  it  is  almost  wholly  a  question  of  degree  of  skill  rather 
than  range  of  information  which  distinguishes  between  different 
degrees  of  ability.  The  oral  and  picture  tests  measure  trade 
skill  indirectly  by  ascertaining  the  amount  of  information 
possessed  by  the  tradesman.  This  method,  however,  breaks 
down  completely  when  there  is  no  high  correlation  between  in- 
formation possessed  and  trade  usefulness.  In  the  case  of  stenog- 
raphy, the  distinction  between  the  poor  typist,  or  even  the 
learner  in  typewriting  and  the  trained  expert  does  not  lie  in  the 
information  possessed.  Both  know,  as  far  as  any  oral  test  could 
reveal  the  fact,  the  position  of  the  keys  on  the  machine,  the 
forms  in  which  a  letter  or  document  should  be  written,  etc. 
The  distinction  lies  in  the  speed  possessed  by  the  expert  as  com- 
pared with  that  found  in  the  slower  typist.  To  differentiate 
between  these  two  kinds  of  trade  usefulness,  the  performance 
test,  where  the  individual  is  actually  given  a  piece  of  work  to  do, 
is  the  only  possible  resort.  The  same  is  true  for  such  occupa- 
tions as  truck  driver,  computer,  clerical  worker,  and  countless 
other  occupations  where  information  is  a  minimum  and  skill  a 
maximum.  This  condition  is  found  to  a  great  extent  in  modern 
production  methods  'of  industry,  where  the  process  upon  which 
the  tradesman  is  engaged  is  exceedingly  specialized,  demanding 
a  minimum  of  knowledge  and  a  maximum  of  speed. 


262  TRADE    TESTS 

The  performance  test  is  also  indispensable  in  the  examination 
of  tradesmen  who  are  unable  to  speak  the  English  language.  In 
certain  important  occupations  in  many  parts  of  the  country  the 
skilled  work  is  being  done  almost  exclusively  by  men  who  are 
incapable  of  being  tested  by  any  method  involving  language  to 
the  degree  called  for  by  the  oral  and  picture  test.  For  example, 
in  the  city  of  Cleveland  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  standardize, 
under  fair  conditions,  the  oral  test  for  cabinet  makers;  eighty 
per  cent  of  the  men  who  by  trade  standing  were  qualified  to  take 
the  examination  were  prevented  from  doing  so  by  language 
difficulty.  Where  this  situation  exists,  the  oral  or  picture  test 
is  much  more  a  measurement  of  language  facility  than  it  is  of 
trade  information,  and  for  these  reasons,  where  the  tradesmen 
are  not  English  speaking,  the  findings  are  very  misleading. 

A  further  advantage  of  the  performance  test  is  found  in  its 
obviously  practical  nature.  It  has  already  been  emphasized 
that,  other  things  being  equal,  any  trade  test  is  advantageous 
to  the  extent  to  which  it  reflects  the  shop  conditions  under  which 
the  ordinary  workman  follows  the  trade.  The  performance 
test  possesses  this  great  merit,  and  on  this  account  establishes 
the  confidence  of  the  tradesman  both  in  himself  and  in  the 
method  of  examination.  The  considerations  enumerated  above 
made  the  use  of  the  performance  test  method  indispensable  as 
part  of  the  army  selective  machinery. 

The  Difficulty  of  Procuring  an  Adequate  Sample  of  Trade 
Ability  by  a  Single  Performance  Test 

In  connection  with  the  oral  method  of  examination  the  ques- 
tion of  the  random  sampling  of  trade  information  and  trade 
ability  has  been  discussed.  In  general  the  complex  which  is 
referred  to  as  trade  ability  consists  of  many  elements  of  infor- 
mation and  a  large  number  of  skills.  It  has  been  proved  that 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  263 

fifteen  to  twenty  questions,  so  chosen  as  to  cover  different  proc- . 
esses  of  the  trade,  can  be  used  as  an  adequate  sampling  of 
total  information.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  as  the  number 
of  questions  is  reduced,  the  assumption  that  the  test  will  give 
an  indication  of  general  trade  information  and  ability,  becomes 
increasingly  dangerous.  To  attempt  to  measure  the  ability  of 
a  tradesman  with  a  single  question  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  absurd. 
One  question  might  be  merely  a  matter  of  accidental  informa- 
tion, which  might  conceivably  be  possessed  by  an  individual 
who  had  no  knowledge  of  any  operation  other  than  that  con- 
cerning which  the  question  was  asked.  It  is  around  this  question 
of  the  sampling  of  total  trade  ability  that  one  of  the  great  diffi- 
culties of  the  performance  method  centers. 

If,  with  twenty  questions,  involving  twenty  different  phases 
of  the  total  occupation,  there  is  difficulty  in  ensuring  a  random 
sampling,  how  much  greater  is  the  difficulty  in  the  case  of  a 
single  operation!  The  reader  may  be  tempted  to  ask,  "Why 
was  it  necessary  to  restrict  the  performance  to  a  single  job? 
Why  could  not  the  performance  test  cover  a  large  number  of 
different  operations  of  the  trade?"  The  reason  that  many 
operations  could  not  be  included  in  one  composite  test  lay  in 
the  limitations  as  to  time  and  expense  fixed  by  the  army  situa- 
tion. To  administer  twenty  oral  or  picture  questions  was  a 
matter  of  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  simplest  form  of  perform- 
ance test  in  the  majority  of  trades  would  occupy  from  one  to 
three  hours.  A  sampling  including  a  number  of  jobs  would 
involve  not  only  a  great  deal  of  equipment,  but  would  also  take 
two  or  three  days  to  furnish  a  rating.  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  army  required  a  test  which  could  be  given  in  all  the 
camps  in  a  minimum  of  time,  the  impracticability  of  a  long 
performance  test  is  patent. 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing,  however,  that  this  was  prac- 


264  TRADE    TESTS 

tically  the  only  method  employed  by  the  British  Army.  Owing 
to  the  geographical  conditions  and  general  methods  of  opera- 
tion of  their  army,  it  was  possible  to  assemble  all  men  claiming 
trade  skill  in  one  or  two  large  centers.  At  these  centers  were 
found  the  tools  and  materials  of  a  fully  equipped  shop,  with 
trade  experts  in  charge  having  full  knowledge  of  army  require- 
ments. The  recruit  in  passing  through  one  of  these  stations 
was  assigned  a  number  of  jobs.  While  working  on  these  various 
jobs,  his  dexterity  and  familiarity  with  the  processes  were  ob- 
served. It  was  possible  under  these  conditions  to  note  the 
points  of  strength  and  weakness,  and  on  this  basis  to  make 
recommendation  for  further  training  or  assignment  to  a  suitable 
unit.  This  examination,  which  often  extended  over  a  period 
of  from  two  days  to  a  week,  failed,  in  spite  of  its  thoroughness, 
to  yield  an  objective  rating.  The  estimate  made  of  the  man's 
ability  was  of  course  dependent  upon  the  subjective  judgment  of 
the  particular  examiner  who  observed  his  work.  This  method  of 
examination  will,  however,  be  discussed  more  fully  when  we  con- 
sider the  applications  of  trade  test  methods  to  modern  conditions. 
The  restriction  as  to  the  time  allowed  for  the  examination 
made  it  necessary  to  select  a  single  operation  of  the  trade  which 
could  be  completed  in  one  or  two  hours  at  the  most,  and  which 
would  furnish  a  reliable  index  of  general  trade  efficiency.  Natu- 
rally, a  single  operation  in  the  trade  might  well  involve  the  use 
of  a  considerable  number  of  tools  and  the  handling  of  various 
kinds  of  material.  For  example,  the  total  operation  of  making 
a  small  tin  cup  according  to  specifications,  as  a  performance 
test  for  sheet  metal  workers,  involves  efficiency  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  contributing  minor  operations.  Other  things  being  equal, 
that  total  operation  is  of  the  greatest  value  from  the  standpoint 
of  testing  which  involves  the  largest  number  of  significant 
minor  processes. 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  265 

Kinds  of  Performance  Test 

For  present  purposes  it  is  convenient  to  distinguish  between 
the  process  and  the  product  of  a  trade  operation.  While  the 
two,  hi  many  cases,  are  very  closely  related,  and  hi  fact  almost 
indistinguishable,  hi  other  cases  the  product  may  be  considered 
apart  from  the  process.  As  an  illustration  of  process  and  product 
being  almost  inseparable,  an  operation  such  as  that  of  truck 
driving  may  be  cited.  There  is  hi  this  case-  no  possibility  of 
drawing  the  line  at  any  tune  during  the  operation  between  the 
process  and  the  product.  The  "product"  of  turning  a  difficult 
corner  is  virtually  the  "process"  of  turning  a  corner.  In  the 
case  of  the  construction  of  a  tin  cup,  the  processes  involved  in 
the  choosing  of  materials,  their  cutting,  shaping,  soldering,  etc., 
can  all  be  observed,  even  though  the  final  product,  the  com- 
pleted cup,  is  never  seen. 

In  the  case  of  a  process  performance  test  the  candidate  would 
be  watched  during  the  progress  of  the  examination.  His  famili- 
arity with  tools  and  material,  his  skill  and  dexterity  would  be 
judged,  even  though  the  examination  was  not  carried  to  a  point 
where  any  tangible  final  product  was  evolved.  The  way  in 
which  the  man  went  about  his  work,  the  tools  that  he  chose, 
the  remarks  that  he  made,  the  order  hi  which  he  tackled  the 
various  steps,  all  this  could  be  observed  without  reference  to  the 
final  product. 

In  the  case  of  the  product  test,  there  need  be  no  observation 
of  the  man  while  he  is  performing  the  task.  A  carpenter  might 
be  given  the  necessary  specifications,  materials  and  tools  for 
the  construction  of  a  joint.  He  would  then  be  set  to  work  at 
the  bench,  no  further  attention  being  given  except  to  insure 
the  absence  of  outside  assistance.  At  the  end  of  the  trial,  the 
quality  of  the  product  could  be  examined  and  rated  according 
to  previously  formulated  objective  standards. 


266  TRADE    TESTS 

The  last  illustration  brings  us  to  the  consideration  of  the 
question  of  speed  of  operation.  It  may  well  be  that  a  very 
simple  product,  which  could  be  turned  out  even  by  an  appren- 
tice would,  when  the  tune  factor  is  considered,  differentiate 
between  men  of  varying  trade  experience.  It  would  not  be  a 
matter  of  the  quality  of  the  product,  but  rather  the  facility  and 
dexterity  possessed  by  the  tradesman,  as  indicated  by  the  time 
he  took  to  perform  the  task.  In  illustration  of  this,  the  case 
of  the  distinction  between  the  poor  and  good  typist  may  be  cited. 
If  both  are  given  the  same  copy,  it  may  well  be  that  they  would 
both  hand  in  identically  the  same  final  product,  but  whereas, 
in  the  first  case,  the  time  taken  might  be  twenty-eight  minutes, 
the  corresponding  time  of  the  expert  might  well  be  thirteen 
minutes.  The  distinction  between  the  two  levels  of  ability  is, 
therefore,  in  this  case,  one  that  admits  of  being  measured  by 
a  time  factor.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  the  process  by  which 
the  final  copy  is  produced  is  the  same  in  the  two  cases.  An 
observation  of  the  two  typists  at  work  would  show  at  once  that 
the  processes  differ  much  more  than  in  mere  speed.  The  opera- 
tions of  a  skilled  individual  in  a  particular  process  are  different 
operations,  not  merely  more  rapid  ones  than  those  of  the  un- 
skilled worker. 

There  are,  then,  several  elements  from  which  the  perform- 
ance test  is  evolved.  These  are, 

1.  Observation  of  tradesman  while  engaged  in  the  processes 
of  the  trade. 

2.  Examination  of  the  resulting  product. 

3.  Consideration  of  the  time  taken,  either  for  a  particular 
process,  or  for  the  producing  of  a  particular  object. 

In  addition,  combinations  of  the  first  and  second  factors, 
second  and  third  factors,  and  of  all  three  may  well  be  used  in 
the  construction  of  a  performance  test.  Simple  illustrations 
of  each  of  these  possibilities  are  given. 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  267 

Process  Test 

In  a  test  for  chauffeur  truck  driver,  the  candidate  would  be 
scored,  according  to  the  way  in  which  he  handled  a  truck,  under 
standard  conditions,  when  under  the  observation  of  the  examiner. 

Product  Test 

In  a  test  for  an  expert  toolmaker,  a  very  difficult  part  might 
be  given,  the  tradesman  being  required  to  produce  to  within  a 
few  thousands  of  an  inch  a  part  from  raw  stock,  similar  to  the 
sample.  Here  time  might  not  be  considered,  the  fact  that  the 
workman  was  capable  of  reproducing  the  part  furnishing  suffi- 
cient evidence  for  rating. 

Process  Time  Test 

In  a  test  for  a  machinist,  the  speed  with  which  a  machine 
could  be  changed  from  doing  one  job  to  another  requiring  a 
different  set-up  might  be  measured;  the  examiner  would  rate 
the  workman  according  to  the  correctness  of  the  various  steps, 
as  well  as  on  the  basis  of  his  speed  in  passing  through  the  several 
stages. 

Product  Time  Test 

In  a  test  for  typist,  not  only  would  the  quality  of  the  final 
copy  be  examined,  but  also  the  speed  at  which  a  definite  amount 
was  produced. 

Process-product-time  Test 

This  is  a  common  type  of  informal  test  used  in  industry, 
where  the  workman,  say  an  automobile  radiator  repair  man, 
is  given  a  radiator,  damaged  in  a  known  way,  to  repair.  His 
performance  is  judged  partly  by  the  way  in  which  he  handles 
and  chooses  the  implements  of  his  trade,  partly  by  the  quality 


268  TRADE    TESTS 

of  the  final  job  turned  out,  and  partly  on  the  basis  of  the  time 
taken  for  the  carrying  out  of  the  operations. 

As  to  which  one  of  these  methods  shall  be  employed,  the 
decision  depends  on  the  conditions  for  which  the  test  is  designed. 
•To  meet  army  requirements  of  speed  and  objective  scoring  by 
non-tradesmen  the  product-time  method  is  usually  the  most 
useful.  In  certain  cases,  however,  as  in  the  auto  driver,  the 
process  test  can  be  used  to  greater  advantage.  With,  reference 
to  the  process  method,  it  may  be  noted  that  although  time 
may  not  be  actually  measured  it  is  not  wholly  neglected,  for 
the  conditions  of  the  experiment  naturally  set  a  limiting  time 
for  the  carrying  out  of  the  operations.  Provided  the  procedure 
is  gone  through  within  this  time,  which  is  ample,  no  note  is 
made  of  the  speed  of  the  operation. 

GUIDING  PRINCIPLES  IN  DETERMINING  SELECTION  OF 
PERFORMANCE  TEST 

The  first  requisite  of  the  performance  test  is  that  the  nature 
of  the  task  should  be,  as  far  as  possible,  typical  of  the  actual 
work  of  the  trade.  Where  a  trade,  particularly  in  its  higher 
branches,  becomes  very  specialized,  the  actual  task  chosen  for 
the  performance  test  must  be  such  that  it  is  common  to  the 
maximum  number  of  these  specialized  branches.  It  is  also 
exceedingly  desirable  to  arrange  the  test  so  that  it  can  be  used 
as  an  examination  for  all  tradesmen,  irrespective  of  their  trade 
status.  The  rating  of  the  tradesmen  as  apprentice,  journey- 
man or  expert  should  be  determined  by  the  time  required  for 
the  completion  of  the  task,  by  the  quality  of  the  workmanship, 
or  by  both.  While  for  other  than  army  conditions  it  may  well 
be  desirable  that  three  performance  tests  be  given,  one  being 
suited  to  those  of  apprentice  standard,  another  to  journeyman 
standard,  and  the  third  adapted  to  the  expert  group,  yet  this 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  269 

method  was  not  feasible  for  the  rapid  examination  of  men  of 
unknown  trade  status  in  the  army. 

The  process  test  has  certain  merits.  The  most  frequent  and 
insistent  contention  of  experts  in  the  field  is  that  it  is  necessary, 
in  order  to  judge  the  skill  of  a  tradesman,  to  watch  him  at  work. 
Only  by  actually  observing  him  on  the  job  is  it  possible  to  get  a 
full  idea  of  the  way  in  which  he  handles  his  tools,  his  material 
and  himself.  A  judgment  of  this  kind  tends  to  include  more 
than  merely  manual  skill.  It  also  gives  a  basis  for  estimation  of 
general  intelligence,  physical  strength,  perseverance  and  the  like. 

The  chief  demerit  of  the  process  test  is  that  the  judgment 
rendered  by  the  examiner,  even  when  an  expert  in  the  trade, 
is  subjective.  In  a  large  majority  of  the  cases  where  unskilled 
examiners  must  be  used,  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  an  adequate 
objective  judgment.  In  opposition  to  this  method  of  examina- 
tion, let  us  contrast  the  "  product- time "  test.  Here  the  final 
object  produced  has  to  be  rated,  and  not  the  operations  which 
led  to  its  production.  The  examination  of  the  object,  with  a 
view  to  rating,  can  be  leisurely.  It  can  be  judged  by  reference 
to  certain  standard  samples  or  objects,  and  it  can  also  be  scored 
by  several  examiners,  thereby  greatly  increasing  the  reliability 
of  the  judgment.  The  product  test  is  also  far  superior  to  the 
process  test  from  the  standpoint  of  administration.  The  process 
test  calls  for  continuous  observation  by  the  examiner,  his  time 
is  apt  to  be  taken  up  exclusively  by  one  tradesman,  whereas  in 
the  product  time  test,  the  examiner,  after  assigning  the  task 
and  distributing  the  material  and  tools,  has  merely  to  note 
the  time  at  which  the  candidate  hands  in'  the  finished  product. 
Consequently  many  examinations  can  be  given  simultaneously. 
It  may  be  urged  by  some  readers  that  an  unduly  fine  line  has 
been  drawn  between  the  process  and  the  product  form  of  ex- 
amination. There  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  little  distinction  be- 


270  TRADE    TESTS 

tween  the  two.  In  many  cases  they  are  so  interrelated  that 
even  for  purposes  of  presentation  there  are  certain  dangers  in 
making  such  a  clear  differentiation.  Whenever  the  final  product 
of  an  operation,  together  with  the  time  taken  for  its  perform- 


Sample  page  of  performance  test  in  operation  (Lineman). 

ance,  is  judged,  this  judgment  applies  also  indirectly  to  the 
process  leading  to  the  product. 

The  more  this  relationship  is  analyzed,  the  clearer  becomes 
the  fact  that  the  product- time  test  covers  almost  everything 
involved  in  a  process  test. 

Assuming,  therefore,  the  general  advisability  of  using  the 
product-time  test,  the  question  ns  to  which  operation  should 
be  chosen  depends  on  a  number  of  factors.  Among  these  the 
following  need  special  mention. 


PERFORMANCE    TEST    METHOD  271 

1.  The  operation  should  be  sufficiently  exact,  so  that  time 
and  product  admit  of  accurate  standardization,  thereby  en- 
abling objective  judgments  to  be  'made. 

2.  The  combined  ratings  of  time  and  quality  of  product  should 
differentiate  between  men  of  different  levels  of  trade  ability. 

3.  The  task  should  be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  command  the 
respect  and  establish  the  confidence  of  the  tradesman. 

4.  Equipment,  material  and  tools  must  be  reduced  to  the 
smallest  practical  quantity,  and  must  be  capable  of  standardiza- 
tion, so  that  all  tests  can  be  given  under  the  same  conditions. 

5.  The  operation  must  not  require  undue  length  of  time  for 
its  completion,  and  should  contain  within  itself  as  little  repeti- 
tion of  procedures  as  possible. 

To  summarize,  a  performance  test  is  a  standardized  practical 
trade  job,  involving  the  use  of  blue  prints,  material  and  tools  char- 
acteristic of  the  trade.  The  purposes  of  a  performance  test  are: 

1.  To  measure  the  ability  of  the  candidate  in  the  actual 
handling  of  the  equipment,  and  material  of  his  trade. 

2.  To  check  the  rating  given  by  any  of  the  ordinary  interview 
methods.     Discrepancies  between  the  candidate's  performance 
ability  and  his  rating  by  any  oral  interview  method  may  be  due 
to  (a)  language  considerations,  (b)  coaching,  (c)  technical  school 
training. 

3.  To  give  an  objective  rating  when  the  nature  of  the  trade  is 
such  that  an  oral  examination  cannot  be  satisfactorily  given. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  PERFORMANCE 
TEST 

The  Construction  of  a  Performance  Trade  Test 

WHEN,  for  any  of  the  above  reasons,  it  was  tentatively  decided 
to  construct  a  performance  trade  test,  the  stages  through  which 
the  test  passed  were  as  follows: 

1.  Inquiry  concerning  feasibility  of  this  type  of  test. 

2.  Collection  of  trade  information  and  material. 

3.  Preliminary  testing  on  not  less  than  three  experts,  three 
journeymen  and  three  apprentices. 

4.  Revision  and  final  formulation. 

5.  Final  testing  on  a  larger  group  of  apprentices,  journeymen 
and  experts. 

6.  Statistical  treatment  of  results  and  calibration  of  the  test. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  stages  closely  correspond  to  those 
through  which  the  oral  and  picture  test  pass.  In  describing 
these  processes  for  a  performance  test  it  will  only  be  necessary 
to  show  where  the  differences  in  procedure  exist,  and  to  discuss 
the  peculiar  difficulties  arising  in  connection  with  the  construc- 
tion of  such  a  test. 

INQUIRY  CONCERNING  FEASIBILITY  OF  THIS  TYPE  OF  TEST 

The  first  point  of  investigation  concerns  the  relationship 
existing  in  the  trade  between  information  and  manual  skill. 
This  inquiry  consists  of  a  review  of. 

272 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  273 

1.  The  equipment,  materials  and  tools  with  which  a  man 

works. 

2.  The  kind  of  work  produced. 

3.  Trade  processes,  such  as  laying  out,  cutting,  etc. 

(a)  An  enumeration   and   description   of   the   significant 

elements. 

(b)  A  classification  of  these  elements,  particularly  with 

reference  to  whether  they  belong  primarily   to   the 
work  of  an  apprentice,  journeyman  or  expert. 
The  sources  of  this  information  are: 

1.  Suggestions  from  experts. 

2.  Suggestions  from  employers. 

3.  Literature  of  the  trade,  which  may  be  in  the  form  qf  text 

books  or  catalogs. 

4.  The  methods  of  training  in  trade  schools. 

5.  Trade  investigations. 

COLLECTION  OF  TRADE  INFORMATION  AND  MATERIAL 

Using  the  methods  and  facilities  above  described,  by  looking 
at  products  and  processes  in  the  shop,  a  compilation  is  made  of 
that  material  which  might  contribute  to  the  construction  of 
the  performance  test.  This  compilation  is  made  in  conference 
with  several  expert  tradesmen  in  different  plants,  working 
under  different  conditions.  From  what  has  already  been  said 
concerning  the  difficulties  of  securing  a  single  job  which  may 
be  representative  of  trade  ability  and  trade  skill,  it  will  be 
apparent  that  these  performances  have  to  be  selected  with  the 
greatest  degree  of  care.  An  operation  is  of  no  service  as  the 
basis  of  a  performance  test  unless  (i)  it  will  differentiate  be- 
tween different  levels  of  trade  ability;  (2)  it  can  be  administered 
with  fairly  simple  equipment;  (3)  it  can  be  administered  and 
be  rated  in  an  objective  manner  by  a  non-tradesman.  All  of 


274  TRADE    TESTS 

the  above  considerations  have  to  be  taken  into  account  in  the 
selection  of  the  final  performance  which  is  to  be  used  in  the  test. 
A  particular  job  may  conform  to  one  or  two  of  the  requirements 
and  yet  be  useless  because  it  fails  to  satisfy  others.  Again,  the 
contribution  made  by  the  tradesman  is  found  in  the  informa- 
tion furnished  with  regard  to  the  suitability  of  the  performance 
as  a  measure  of  trade  ability.  The  contribution  made  by  the 
compiler  lies  in  the  decision  as  to  whether  the  job  can  be  made 
to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  an  objective  test,  suited  to 
the  other  demands  of  the  examination.  Of  the  several  possible 
jobs  selected,  all  but  one  or  two  are  eliminated  by  consultation 
with  expert  tradesmen  or  by  rapid  try-out. 

For  the  jobs  which  still  appear  to  be  suitable  when  all  avail- 
able information  has  been  obtained,  the  necessary  tools  and 
materials  have  to  be  collected.  This  involves  in  many  cases 
the  assembly  of  blue-prints,  drawings,  and  detailed  instruc- 
tions. The  final  stage  of  the  compilation  process  is  the  reduction 
of  the  test  to  a  tentative  form  in  which  specific  instructions  to 
the  candidate  are  formulated,  together  with  definite  instruc- 
tions to  the  examiner  with  regard  to  the  administration  and 
scoring  of  the  test.  There  must  also  be  a  complete  statement  of 
the  equipment  and  facilities  necessary  for  the  carrying  out  of 
the  process.  While  these  requirements  cannot  be  completely 
met  at  this  early  stage  the  general  nature  of  the  test  procedure 
must  be  outlined  before  the  passage  can  be  made  to  the  next 
stage,  that  of  the  preliminary  testing  on  tradesmen  of  different 
known  levels  of  ability. 

Preliminary  Testing  of  Tentative  Form  of  Performance  Test 

When  the  performance  test  has  been  reduced  to  a  fairly  defi- 
nite form,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  instructions  given 
to  the  tradesman  and  the  equipment  necessary  for  the  process, 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  275 

the  preliminary  sampling  takes  place.  This  consists  of  adminis- 
tering the  test  to  not  less  than  three  experts,  three  journeymen 
and  three  apprentices,  the  different  grades  of  ability  being 
taken  alternately.  The  functions  of  this  preliminary  experi- 
ment are  manifold.  The  most  essential  information  which  is 
secured  has  reference  to  the  differentiating  value  of  the  test, 
answering  the  question  as  to  whether  the  performance,  scored 
by  any  possible  objective  means,  can  be  expected  to  differentiate 
between  tradesmen  of  different  abilities.  It  also  serves  to  bring 
out  the  administrative  difficulties  of  the  test,  and  gives  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  time  consumed.  Furthermore,  it  pro- 
vides information  from  which  the  scheme  of  scoring  can  be 
more  fully  constructed.  In  addition  it  furnishes  a  more  accurate 
basis  for  the  compilation  of  the  necessary  equipment,  material 
and  tools.  It  also  reveals  the  extent  to  which  the  preliminary 
instructions  to  the  candidate  are  adequate.  Finally,  it  gives 
information  with  regard  to  the  extent  to  which  this  particular 
test  conforms  or  fails  to  conform  to  the  other  criteria  of  per- 
formance tests  which  have  been  mentioned.  If  the  above  re- 
quirements can  be  met  and  the  difficulties  avoided, ,the  test  now 
passes  to  the  next  stage. 

Revision  and  Final  Formulation 

On  the  basis  of  the  full  records  of  the  nine  men  tested,  together 
with  the  finished  products  (when  the  test  is  of  this  type),  the 
process  of  revision  now  takes  place.  Some  elements  of  the  test, 
which  prove  to  have  no  differentiating  value,  are  eliminated; 
other  elements  are  altered  and  occasionally  new  elements,  which 
the  preliminary  experiment  brought  to  attention,  are  added. 
These  changes  necessitate  the  drawing  up  in  final  form,  collect- 
ing the  instructions  to  the  candidate,  a  full  statement  of  the 
test  equipment,  and  also  detailed  instructions  to  the  examiner 


276  TRADE    TESTS 

as  regards  administration.  The  performance  test  is  now  in  its 
final  form  and  it  remains  hereafter  unchanged.  Following  these 
precise  directions,  the  test  is  now  administered  in  a  routine 
manner,  for  the  purpose  of  final  testing  and  calibration. 

FINAL  TESTING  ON  LARGER  GROUP  OF  APPRENTICES, 
JOURNEYMEN  AND  EXPERTS 

Using  the  criteria  of  apprentice,  journeyman  and  expert  which 
have  already  been  given  in  the  description  of  the  oral  test,  fifteen 
apprentices,  fifteen  journeymen  and  fifteen  experts  were  now 
subjected  to  the  standardized  form  of  examination.  These  trades- 
men were  taken  from  different  plants,  working  under  different 
trade  conditions.  Ideally  the  examination  should  have  been 
given  in  different  localities,  as  was  the  case  in  the  oral  and  picture 
tests,  but  this  was  not  found  to  be  practicable.  During  these 
examinations  the  fullest  notes  were  taken,  the  times  of  perform- 
ance noted,  and  the  finished  products  labeled.  These  records 
furnished  the  basis  for  the  last  stage  through  which  the  test 
passed. 

Statistical  Treatment  of  Results  or  Calibration  of  Test 

The  method  of  evaluation  varies  so  much  from  test  to  test, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  describe,  except  in  the  most  general 
terms,  the  process  whereby  the  final  method  of  scoring  in  each 
test  was  evolved.  The  procedure  hi  the  case  of  the  oral  test 
standardization  was  always  the  same,  and  eventually  it  de- 
veloped into  a  purely  routine  statistical  procedure.  This  was 
not  the  case  with  the  performance  test.  Here  there  was  room 
for  the  utmost  ingenuity  in  the  selection  and  weighting  of  the 
different  elements  which  comprised  the  whole  examination.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  refer  to  the  methods  of  scoring  shown  in 
the  tests  themselves,  to  realize  the  significance  of  this  state- 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  277 

ment.  The  following,  however,  gives  in  a  general  way  an  ac- 
count of  the  procedure.  The  object  of  the  evaluation  was  to 
pick  out  certain  elements  of  the  test,  usually  qualities  of  the 
product,  and  to  weight  these  qualities  in  such  a  manner  that 
when  combined  with  the  time  factor,  the  most  marked  differen- 
tiation between  the  three  levels  of  tradesmen  was  obtained. 
In  other  words,  a  numerical  expression  had  to  be  worked  out, 
in  which  the  various  elements  of  the  test  were  so  appraised  that 
the  test  would  exert  its  maximum  differentiating  power.  To 
accomplish  this  purpose,  it  was  necessary  to  single  out  those 
aspects  of  the  test  which,  in  addition  to  differentiating,  were 
also  capable  of  being  scored  on  an  objective  basis.  The  extent 
to  which  objectivity  of  marking  was  secured  was  discovered  by 
framing  standardized  directions  for  scoring,  and  then  noting  the 
variation  which  existed  between  the  marks  given  by  various 
examiners.  When  reasonable  objectivity  of  scoring  was  ob- 
tained with  reference  to  a  particular  aspect  of  the  test,  a  full 
description  of  what  constituted  the  various  scores  was  compiled. 
It  can  readily  be  seen  that  certain  phases  of  the  operation  are 
of  much  greater  importance  than  others.  This  was  recognized 
in  the  marking  by  assigning  different  scores  to  different  ele- 
ments. This  is  what  is  meant  by  "weighting"  the  various  parts 
of  the  test.  In  deciding  the  amount  of  these  weightings,  graphs 
were  drawn,  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  has  been  presented 
in  the  corresponding  stage  of  the  oral  test.  The  combined 
scores  on  all  aspects  of  the  tests  were  thus  determined  for  the 
forty-five  tradesmen  to  whom  the  test  was  given,  and  from  this 
distribution  the  critical  scores  corresponding  to  apprentice, 
journeyman,  and  expert  status  were  then  determined,  the  lines 
of  demarcation  of  the  three  levels  being  so  chosen  as  to  secure 
the  maximum  correspondence  between*  the  verdict  of  the  test 
and  the  known  trade  abilities  of  the  workmen.  This  completed 


278  TRADE    TESTS 

the  stages  through  which  the  performance  test  passed  from  the 
initial  inquiry  concerning  its  feasibility  to  the  final  determina- 
tion of  norms  of  performance. 


DIVISIONS  OF  A  PERFORMANCE  TEST  IN  ITS  FINAL  FORM 

I.    The  first  part  consists  of  the  test  specifications,  which  are 
described  under  three  heads: 

A.  Equipment. 

B.  Material. 

C.  Tools. 

II.    The  second  part  consists  of  instructions  to  examiners. 
These  instructions  may  be  divided  into  two  parts: 

A.  Those  instructions  which  are  necessary  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  test. 

B.  Instructions  to  be  given  to  the  candidate.    These  instruc- 
tions are  usually  of  an  oral  nature,  and  explain  to  the  candidate 
the  nature  of  the  task,  making  the  necessary  reference  to  blue- 
prints, diagrams  and  specifications.    They  are  given  in  a  per- 
fectly standardized  way.     It  is  merely  a  matter  of  reading  the 
directions.    The  examiner  is  not  allowed  to  deviate  in  the  least 
degree  from  the  printed  form.    When  these  instructions  had  been 
given,  it  was  customary  to  say  to  the  candidate:  "Now  just  to 
make  sure  that  you  understand  what  is  wanted,  suppose  you 
tell  me  what  you  are  going  to  do."    The  examiner  at  this  stage 
was  allowed  to  repeat  all,  or  any  part  of  the  instructions,  but 
he  was  not  allowed  to  alter  or  add  to  them  in  any  way.     If 
during  the  performance  the  candidate  asked  any  questions,  the 
examiner  was  restricted  to  repeating  merely  that  part  of  the 
prescribed  instruction  which  covered  the  question  asked.     If 
the  question  covered  a  field  not  touched  upon  in  the  instruction. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  279 

the  examiner  answered:   "I  have  given  you  all  the  instructions 
which  are  allowed  in  this  test." 

III.  Instructions  to  examiner  with  reference  to  scoring. 
These  may  be  divided  into  two  parts: 

A.  Detailed  instructions  with  regard  to  scoring  the  various 
qualitative  aspects  of  the  product.    As  full  an  account  as  possi- 
ble of  the  requirements  of  each  aspect  necessary  to  receive  a 
certain  credit  is  given. 

B.  Full  directions  are  also  given  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  time  factor  should  be  treated,  when  it  enters. 

C.  Final  rating  of  candidate.    When  the  total  score  of  the 
candidate,  which  may  be  hi  terms  of  time,  in  terms  of  quality, 
or  in  both,  has  been  calculated,  the  examiner  has  merely  to 
follow  the  directions  given  under  " Basis  for  scoring"  to  decide 
whether  the  candidate  is  an  expert,  journeyman,  apprentice  or 
novice. 

IV.  Method  of  administering  performance  test. 

The   following   are   the   general   instructions,   issued   to   the 
examiners  for  giving  the  Performance  Test. 

Giving  the  Tests 

1.  Before  giving  a  test,  the  examiner  will  make  a  statement 
to  the  candidate  which  must  cover  and  be  limited  to  the  follow- 
ing points: 

(a)  Name  of  the  trade. 

(b)  Reason  for  giving  the  test. 

(c)  Importance  of  working  carefully  or  rapidly,  or  both. 

2.  The  exact  wording  is  not  prescribed  because  of  the  obvious 
difficulty  of  making  it  suit  all  examiners  under  varying  conditions. 

Note  the  following  sample  statement:   "We  are  going  to  give 
you  a  practical  job  in  Pattern  Making  to  find  out  how  much 


280  TRADE    TESTS 

you  know  about  your  trade.    Work  as  quickly  and  as  well  as 
you  can."    Follow  with  the  specific  instructions. 

3.  Specific  instructions  for  every  performance  test  are  differ- 
ent.    Therefore  examiners  will  study  carefully  each  perform- 
ance test  before  attempting  to  give  it. 

4.  A  performance  test  consists  of  five  parts: 

I.  Test  equipment. 

II.  Instructions  to  the  examiner. 

III.  Instructions  to  the  candidate. 

IV.  Instructions  to  the  scorer. 
V.  Instructions  to  the  rater. 

Test  Equipment 

1.  Equipment,  materials  and  tools  are  described  in  detail. 
There  should  be  no  departure  from  these  specifications. 

2.  In  some  tests  the  layout  or  arrangement  of  equipment 
before   the   candidate,   determines    the   character  of   the   test. 
The  exact  position  of  each  part  in  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  test  is  specified.     Any  deviation  from  the  prescribed 
arrangement  destroys  the  value  of  the  test. 

3.  All  cutting  tools,   such  as  chisels,   drills,  saws,  and  the 
like,  must  be  sharp  and  in  good  condition  for  each  test. 

Instructions  to  the  Candidate 

1.  Instructions  which  the  examiner  is  to  give  the  candidate 
are  specified  in  each  test.     These  instructions  must  not  be 
changed  or  added  to  in  any  way. 

2.  After  the  candidate  has  received  these  instructions  the 
examiner  will  ask  him,  "Are  there  any  questions?" 

3.  The  examiner  may  repeat,  when  necessary,  all  or  any  part 
of  the  instructions.     The  examiner  will  answer  no  questions 


A   PERFORMANCE    TEST  281 

the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test  except  by  repeating  the 
printed  words  which  relate  to  the  question  asked. 

4.  When  time  is  an  element  of  the  test,  the  examiner  will 
record  the  time  required  by  the  candidate  to  do  the  work.  The 
time  spent  in  giving  the  original  instructions  will  not  be  included. 

Scoring 

1.  Before  attempting  to  score  the  product,  the  examiner  must 
be  familiar  with  the  "Basis  for  Scoring." 

2.  Partial   credits  will  be   given   only  when  permitted  by 
"  Requirements." 

3.  Owing  to  the  time  and  care  required  to  score  certain 
products,  it  is  advisable  in  these  cases  to  dismiss  the  candidate 
and  to  forward  the  product  to  special  scorers. 

4.  In  these  cases  when  the  product  is  not  scored  by  the 
examiner  administering  the  test,  he  shall  enter  the  candidate's 
name  and  organization  upon  a  tag  or  upon  the  product  itself 
and  on  an  accompanying   form  forward    the   product    to  the 
special  scorers. 

5.  The  candidate  will  be  rated  according  to  the  instructions 
given  in  each  test. 

SAMPLE  PERFORMANCE  TESTS 

On  the  following  pages  are  reproduced  several  performance 
tests.  These  are  taken  as  typical  of  the  various  methods  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  the  tests.  No  attempt  is  made  to 
analyze  the  description  of  the  method  of  administration  or  the 
method  of  scoring.  If  these  are  not  obvious  to  the  reader  in 
those  trades  in  which  he  has  adequate  information,  it  is  a  con- 
demnation of  the  instruments. 


282  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
CARPENTER.  —  Pattern  Maker,  Wood 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 
Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

i  Woodworker's  bench  vise. 

5  Feet  of  bench  space,  with  bench  stop. 

Material: 

i  Piece  of  white  pine  f  x  5^  x  1 2  inches. 

i  Piece  of  j  inch  tight  doweling,  6  inches  long. 

i  Piece  of  T%  inch  leather  fillet,  6  inches  long. 
12  i|  inch  brads  No.  17. 
12  it  inch  brads  No.  17. 

i  I  pint  bottle  of  LePage's  glue. 

Tools: 

i  Jack  plane. 

i  Smooth  plane. 

i  £  inch  paring  chisel. 

i  Ib.  claw  hammer. 

i  Cross  cut  saw,  18  inch  blade. 

i  2\  inch  dividers  (H  &  S  No.  83  or  No.  810). 

i  Marking  gauge. 

i  9  inch  combination  square,  with  bevel  protractor, 

i  Ratchet  brace,  10  inch  sweep. 

i  \  inch  wood  bit,  square  shank. 

i  |  inch  wood  bit,  square  shank. 

i  f  inch  wood  bit,  square  shank. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 

i  No.  i  nail  set. 

i  Contraction  rule  for  cast  iron  and  steel. 

i  Fillet  iron,  length  6|  inches. 

i  6  inch  try  square. 

i   i  foot  rule. 


INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   EXAMINER 

1.  Make  certain  that  the  TEST  EQUIPMENT  is  complete  and 
ready  for  the  test. 

2.  Record  the  time  required  by  the  candidate  to  do  the  work.    Do 
not  include  the  time  spent  in  giving  preliminary  instructions. 

3.  Use  Plate  8-p,  to  identify  the  parts  and  measurements  referred  to 
in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCORING.    Do  not  permit  the  candidate  to 
see  this  plate. 

4.  Hand  the  candidate  blue-print  8-p,  No.  i. 


I     !      I 
l_i._l_ 


'I 

Make  a  Pattern  for  this 

"Cast  Steel  Bracket" 

according  to  this  Drawing. 

Finish  only  where  shown. 


WAR  DEPARTMENT 
Committee  on  Classification 

of  Personnel 
TRADE  TEST  DIVISION 

Performance  Test 
Drawing  No.  1           Approved 
7-12-18 8P 


284  TRADE    TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   THE   CANDIDATE 

1.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Look  at  the  instructions  on  this  blue- 
print while  I  read  them."    Read  distinctly  and  slowly  all  legends 
and  measurements.    Point  to  each  thing  as  you  read  it. 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Are  there  any  questions?" 

3.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  on  the 
blue-print.    Do  not  change  them  in  any  way. 

4.  Answer  any  questions  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test  by 
re-reading  the  instructions  printed  on  the  blue-print. 


INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   SCORER   AND   RATER 

Study  carefully  Plate  8-p. 
Figure  lA  pictures  a  correct  product. 

Figure  iB  shows  the  same  product  in  its  approximate  moulding 
position.    Two  sets  of  doweling  are  shown.     Either  the  two  dowels 


at  right  angles  to  Block  #i,  or  the  two  dowels  parallel  to  Block  #2, 
are  acceptable,  but  both  sets  on  one  product  are  wrong.  Core  prints 
may  be  attached  at  different  places;  (i)  c.p.  (Core  print)  #i  or  #2 
may  be  omitted;  (2)  with  c.p.  #2  omitted,  c.p.  #i  may  be  reversed, 
i.e.,  point  M  may  be  at  point  N;  (3)  c:p.  #3  may  be  substituted  for 
c.p.  #i  with  or  without  c.p.  #2.  Measurement  O,  angle  P  and  the 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


285 


tightness  of  the  fit  of  Block  #4  to  Block  #2  are  not  significant  in  the 
scoring  of  this  test. 

Figures  2A  and  B  show  a  partially  incorrect  product.    Reference 
will  be  made  to  this  product  to  illustrate  incorrect  procedure. 


Plate  8-p 

Rate  a  candidate  A  whose  product  has  one  of  the  following  defects; 
(except  under  the  condition  described  in  the  special  note  at  the  end 
of  the  following  list): 

DIMENSIONS  (in  inches)  Fig.  2A. 


Less  Than    More  Than 
•  •  •  5*V  5  A 


1.  Fig.  2A  "A" 5sV 

2.  Fig.  2A  "B" 4  4A 

3.  Fig.  2A  "C" 2-f£  2!$ 

4.  Fig.  2A"D" A  A 

5.  Fig.  2A"E" 2  2fk 

6.  Fig.  2A"F" H  || 

7.  Fig.  2A  "G"  and  "H" H  H 

8.  Fig.  2A  "I" if  H 

9.  Fig.  2A  "J" A  A 

BLOCK  #i. 

10.  Figs.  iB,  26.    Grain  in  direction  at  right  angles  to  grain  shown. 

11.  Fig.  iB.     Absence  of  loose  angle  block,  as  Block  #4.     (See 

note  at  end  of  list.) 


286 


TRADE    TESTS 


12.  Fig.  iB.    Entire  Block  #i  attach  solidly.     (See  note  at  end 

of  list.) 

13.  Fig.  iB.    Entire  Block  #i  doweled. 

14.  Fig.  2B.    Angle  between  Blocks  #i  and  #2  other  than  60°. 


*4*^4I 

BLOCK  #2. 

15.  Figs.  iB,  2B.    Grain  in  direction  at  right  angles  to  grain  shown 

for  Block  #2. 

16.  Fig.  2A.    "Drilled  hole"  drilled  through. 


Plate  8-p 

17.  Fig.  2 A.    Dowel  holes  drilled  through. 

18.  Figs.  2A,  26.    Absence  of  fillet. 

BLOCK  #3. 

19.  Figs.  iB,  26.    Grain  in  direction  at  right  angles  to  grain  shown 

for  Block  #3. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  287 

20.  Fig.  26.     Block  #3  attached  to  Block  #2  as  shown  by  con- 

struction W  is  not  acceptable.    The  correct  method  is  shown 
by  construction  X,  Fig.  iB. 

21.  Fig.  iB.     Absence  of  core  prints  #i,  2  or  3  from  Block  #3. 

(See  note  at  end  of  this  list.) 

22.  Core  print  split. 

23.  Fig.  26.    "Cored  hole"  drilled  through.    Block  #3.    (See  note 

at  end  of  this  list.) 

24.  Fig.  lA,  iB.    Core  print  #3  substituted  for  core  print  #2. 

NOTE:  Fig.  lA  construction  Y  shows  an  alternate  correct 
method  of  making  this  pattern.  If  the  small  piece,  such  as  indicated 
by  construction  Y,  is  left  loose,  the  following  methods  of  construc- 
tion are  acceptable: 

(1)  Absence  of  loose  angle  block  as  Block  #4. 

(2)  Entire  Block  #i  attached  solidly. 

(3)  Absence  of  core  print  i,  2  or  3  from  Block  #3. 

(4)  "Cored  hole"  drilled  through. 

Rate  a  candidate  J  whose  product  does  not  have  one  of  the  above 
twenty-four  defects  and  who  completes  the  work  between  120  and 
71  minutes  inclusive. 

Rate  a  candidate  E  whose  product  does  not  have  one  of  the  above 
twenty-four  defects  and  who  completes  the  work  in  70  minutes  or  less. 

Rate  a  candidate  N  whose  product  does  not  consist  of  three  or  four 
blocks:  Nos.  i,  2,  3,  4. 


288  TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE   TEST 
PIPE  FITTER.  —  Steam  Fitter 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

1  Mitre  radiator  coil 1  to  consist  of  the  following  parts: 

2  inch  4-pipe  headers  (ij  inch  inlets). 
4      inch  right  and  left  elbows. 

i      inch  nipple  13!  inches  long. 

i      inch  nipple  nf  inches  long. 

i      inch  nipple  9  inches  long. 

i      inch  nipple  6|  inches  long. 

i      inch  right  and  left  nipple  14!  inches  long. 

i      inch  right  and  left  nipple  1 1  f  inches  long. 

i      inch  right  and  left  nipple  gf  inches  long. 

i      inch  right  and  left  nipple  6|  inches  long. 

Replacement  Material : 

4  i  inch  right  and  left  elbows. 

Maintenance  Material: 

i  2  Ib.  can  of  Dixon's  graphite.    (This  is  to  be  mixed  with  oil  to 
keep  the  pipes  in  good  condition.) 

Tools: 

i  1 8  inch  genuine  Stillson  wrench  with  metal  handle, 
i  2  foot  rule. 

1  All  threads  on  the  nipples  should  be  run  down  so  that  three  full  turns  can  be 
made  by  hand. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


_lLjJ v 


290  TRADE    TESTS 

i  Piece  of  colored  crayon. 

i  Piece  of  paper  approximately  24  inches  square. 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  EXAMINER 

1.  Make  certain  that  the  TEST  EQUIPMENT  is  complete  and 
ready  for  the  test. 

2.  Place  all  the  parts  of  the  Radiator  Coil  on  the  floor  exactly  in  the 
manner  indicated  on  Plate  14-5,  No.  2. 

3.  Record  the  time  required  by  the  candidate  to  do  the  work.    Do 
not  include  the  time  spent  in  giving  preliminary  instructions. 
Since  time  is  the  only  criterion  for  judging  the  candidate's  ability 
in  this  test  make  certain  that  the  time  is  recorded  accurately. 

4.  In  no  case  permit  the  candidate  to  see  the  assembled  coil  or  to  see 
another  candidate  taking  this  same  test. 


INSTRUCTIONS   TO    THE   CANDIDATE 

1.  Say  to  the  candidate:   "Make  up  this  Radiator  Coil.    Make  it  up 
snug  —  a  little  tighter  than  by  hand.    Don't  make  it  up  too  tight 
because  it  must  be  used  over  and  over  again." 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:  "Are  there  any  questions?" 

3.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  all  or  any  part  of  the  above  instructions. 
Do  not  change  them  in  any  way. 

4.  Answer  any  questions  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test  by 
repeating  the  above  instructions. 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  RATER 

1.  Rate  a  candidate  on  the  basis  of  the  time  required  to  put  the  coil 
together.    In  order  to  be  rated  at  all  on  the  basis  of  time  the  can- 
didate must  at  least  have  each  of  the  pipes  tighter  than  can  be 
turned  by  hand.     If  any  one  of  the  nipples  is  omitted  or  if  any  one 
of  the  nipples  is  loose  rate  the  candidate  N. 

2.  Rate  a  candidate's  proficiency  in  this  trade  according  to  the 
following  standards: 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  291 

Score  Rating 

18  minutes  and  less E 

19  to  34  minutes  inclusive J 

35  to  115  minutes  inclusive A 

116  minutes  or  longer N 

Coil  imperfectly  assembled  as  stated  in  para- 
graph i N 


292  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE   TEST 
SHEET  METAL  WORKER.  —  General 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
EQUIPMENT 

4  feet  of  bench  space.    Bench  with  holes  adequate  to  mount  hatchet 
stake  and  beakhorn. 

1  Block  of  wood  4x4x4  inches. 

MATERIAL 

2  Pieces  of  No.  24  plain  (not  ingot)  galvanized  sheet  iron  4x7  inches. 
6  1 1  pound  tinners  rivets. 

TOOLS 

Tinners  snips:  straight:  length  of  jaws  from  pivot  3!  inches. 
Tinners  riveting  hammer:   weight  i^  pounds;   size  of  face  i  inch. 
Rivet  set  for  i|  pound  rivets. 
Tinners  solid  rivet  punch  to  make  £  inch  hole. 
Tinners  grooving  tools  to  make  \  inch  grooved  seam. 
Tinners  mallet:  face  diameter  2\  inches. 
Tinners  hatchet  stake:   length  of  blade  7  inches. 
Tinners  beakhorn:    end  diameter  (largest)    2  inches;    weight  28 
pounds, 
i  i  foot  rule. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 
INSTRUCTIONS   TO   EXAMINER 


293 


PREPARING  THE  TEST: 

i.   Hand  the  candidate  the  two  pieces  of  galvanized  iron  specified 


2. 


in  TEST  EQUIPMENT. 

Use  the  accompanying  picture  to  make  certain  that 
candidate's  product  fulfills  the  requirements,  but  do 
permit  the  candidate  to  see  this  picture. 


the 
not 


INSTRUCTING  THE  CANDIDATE: 

1.  Say  to  the  candidate:  "Connect  these  two  pieces  with  a  lock 
seam,  grooved  at  the  4  inch  side.    Make  into  a  'cup'  about 
4  inches  in  diameter,  with  top  turned  over  twice  to  the  out- 
side of  the  'cup.'    Seam  with  three  rivets.    Turn  out  bottom 
edge  j  inch  ready  for  sealing  on  the  bottom." 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Now  just  to  make  sure  that  you 
understand  what  is  wanted,  suppose  you  tell  me  what  you 
are  going  to  do." 

3.  Repeat  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  above,  if  necessary, 
but  neither  alter  nor  add  to  them  in  any  way. 

4.  Answer  any  questions  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the 
test  by  repeating  that  part  of  the  prescribed  instructions 
which  covers  the  questions  asked. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   SCORER 
SCORING  THE  CANDIDATE'S  PRODUCT: 

If  the  candidate  completes  the  "cup"  as  instructed  and  if  all 
the   operations  shown   by  the   picture   have   been   performed. 


294  TRADE    TESTS 

rate  him  on  the  basis  of  the  length  of  time  required  to  make  the 
"cup." 

RATING  THE  CANDIDATE: 

Rate  a  candidate  "J"  (journeyman  or  skilled  tradesman)  who 

completes  the  "cup"  in  26  minutes  or  less. 

Rate  a  candidate  "A"  (apprentice  or  partly  skilled  tradesman) 

who  completes  the  "cup"  in  less  than  60  minutes. 

Rate  a  candidate  "N"   (novice)   who  requires  more  than  60 

minutes  or  who  omits  any  of  the  required  operations;    i.e.,  a 

"cup"  shape,  grooved  seam,  riveted  seam,  top  turned  over  and 

bottom  edge  turned  out. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


295 


TRADE  TEST 
ELECTRICIAN.  —  Interior  Wireman 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  OX  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  tfr-e  Adjutant  General 


Jig- 


TEST  EQUIPMENT 
EQUIPMENT 


i  Alcohol  torch  and  blow  pipe  (Bernz  No.  10). 

1  This  jig  consists  of  joists  and  cross  pieces  to  resemble  a  part  of  a  ceiling,  and 
is  constructed  as  shown  in  blueorint  10  w-i. 


296  TRADE    TESTS 

12  Standard   Porcelain   insulating  tubes,  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
wide  and  three  inches  long. 

6  Standard  Porcelain  insulating  split  knobs. 

i  Cleat  rosette  —  Bryant,  catalog  No.  96s.1 

i  Moulding  rosette — Bryant,  fuseless  "Junior,"  catalog  No.  299. 

i  Concealed  rosette  —  "Junior"  concealed,  catalog  No.  298. 
12  No.  9  Flat  Head  bright  wood  screws  2\  inches  long. 
12  No.  7  Flat  Head  bright  wood  screws  \\  inches  long. 

3  feet  of  bench  space. 

80  inches  of  f  inch  circular  insulating  loom  cut  to  the  following 
dimensions: 

1  piece  4  feet  long. 

2  pieces  each  of  the  following  lengths: 

2  inches, 
5  inches, 
9  inches. 

MATERIAL  2 

i  i  Ib.  roll  of  friction  tape,  f  inch  wide, 
i  i  Ib.  roll  of  rubber  insulating  tape,  f  inch  wide, 
i  2  oz.  can  of  soldering  paste, 
i  Ib.  of  wire  solder. 

10  ft.  B.  &  S.  No.  18  gauge  cotton  covered  twisted  lamp  cord. 
400.  ft.  No.  14  gauge  single  strand  electric  light  wire  (insulated). 
Western  Electric  List  No.  660013. 

TOOLS 

i  screw  driver  with  blade  6  inches  long  and  \  inch  wide, 
i  pair  8  inch  Kline  side  cutting  pliers, 
i  ordinary  pocket  knife. 

NSTRUCTIONS   TO   EXAMINER 
PREPARATION  FOR  THE  TEST: 

Place  the  jig  (the  section  of  joists  and  supports)  upon  the 

bench  with  the  floor-side  up. 

*•  Catalog  numbers  refer  to  Western  Electrical  Supply  Year  Book,  1918. 
2  Sufficient  to  test  50  men. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  297 

INSTRUCTIONS    TO    CANDIDATE: 

i.  Say  to  the  candidate:  "This  is  part  of  a  ceiling:  joists  and 
cross  pieces.  This  side  is  the  floor  above  (examiner  points  to 
this)  and  this  side  (examiner  points  to  opposite  side)  is  the 


I 

zS 


Q.  5  ^  «w>o   .  -• 


SI 


. 


plaster  ceiling  below."  (Examiner  should  hold  the  jig  slightly 
above  the  level  of  his  head  so  that  the  candidate  can  see  the 
resemblance  to  the  situation  described.)  "Run  two  feed 
wires  ACROSS  and  THROUGH  both  joists,  using  holes  al- 


298  TRADE    TESTS 

ready  drilled.  From  these  main  lines  tap 'off  leads  in  parallel 
and  drop  a  lamp  cord  from  this  support  (examiner  points  to 
the  support).  Use  any  material  necessary,  but  do  not  use 
any  more  than  you  have  to.  Do  your  work  as  if  it  were  a 
regular  finished  job." 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:   "Now  tell  me  what  you  are  supposed 
to  do." 

3.  Repeat  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  above,  if  necessary, 
but  neither  alter  nor  add  to  them  in  any  way. 

4.  Answer  any  questioi  s  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test 
by  repeating  that  part  of  the  prescribed  instructions  which 
covers  the  question  asked. 

SCORING  THE  CANDIDATES  PRODUCT: 

1.  After  the  candidate  has  f  nished  the  test,  and  before  attempt- 
ing to  credit  any  part  of  the  product,  read  through  carefully 
the  entire  BASIS  FOR  SCORING  and  check  each  require- 
ment against  the  corresponding  part  of  the  product,  so  that 
you  will  understand  thoroughly  how  to  give  proper  credit. 

2.  In  all  cases  score  the  candidate's  product  on  the  basis  of  the 
REQUIREMENTS  provided  in  BASIS  TOR  SCORING,  not 
on  what  you  think  the  finished  product  is  worth. 

3.  For    that    product    which    agrees    with    the    definition    of 
"perfect" Score  i 

4.  For    that    product    which    agrees    with    the    definition    of 
"failure " Score  o 

5.  Give  credit  to  each  SCORING  UNIT  in  accordance  with  the 
REQUIREMENTS  enumerated  in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCOR- 
ING. 

6.  Add  up  the  credits  which  the  candidate  obtains  on  the  indi- 
vidual scoring  units.     This  is  the  candidate's  Performance 
Test  Score. 

7.  Record  the  time  when  the  candidate  actually  begins  and 
finishes  work. 

RATING  THE  CANDIDATE: 

Rate  a  candidate  "J"  (journeyman  or  skilled  tradesman) 
who  fulfills  both  the  following  requirements: 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  299 

1.  Score :  9  points  or  more. 

2.  Time:  30  minutes  or  less. 

Rate  a  candidate  "A"  (apprentice  or  partly  skilled  trades- 
man) who  fulfills  both  the  following  requirements: 

i.   Score:  Between  2  and  8  points  inclusive. 
•     2.  Time:  More  than  30  minutes. 
Rate  a  candidate  "N"  (novice)  who  scores  less  than  2  points. 

BASIS   FOR   SCORING 
SCORING  UNIT  REQUIREMENTS  CREDIT 

1.  Wiring 

Wires  drawn  through  joists,  leads  tapped  off  and  lamp 
cord  dropped  from  ceiling  support,  although  incor- 
rectly done i 

Failure  to  do  any  one  of  these  things o 

2.  Installing  Main 

Wires  drawn  through  the  two  outside  holes  '(5  inches 

apart)  through  both  joists i 

Wires  drawn  through  any  pair  of  holes  less  than  5 
inches  apart o 

3.  Connections,  Main 

Connections  on  main  lines  located  as  on  blueprint  10 

w-i,  Fig.  i,  parts  c,c i 

Connections  located  elsewhere o 

4.  Knobs 

Insulating  knobs  located  as  shown  on  blueprint   10 

w-i,  Figs.  No.  i  and  No.  3;  parts  k,k i 

Insulating  knobs  located  elsewhere ^ 

5.  Insulation  from  Main 

Insulation  of  lead  wire  from  main  lines  by  means  of 
flexible  conduit  or  porcelain  insulator  taped  to  wire. .       i 
Absence  of  such  insulation o 

6.  Tape 

Friction  tape  covers  entirely  the  rubber  tape  and  rub- 
ber tape  wrapped  tightly  around  all  open  wires i 

Rubber  tape  or  open  wire  exposed o 


300  TRADE    TESTS 

7.  Solder 

Connections  on  main  lines  soldered  tightly i 

Loose  connections  or  absence  of  solder o 

8.  Loom 

Circular  loom  extends  from  last  knob  to,  and  projects  , 

through  ceiling  support  to  rosette • i 

Absence  of  or  length  of  conduit  less  than  from  last 
knob  to  support o 

9.  Rosette 

Use  of  rosette  with  concealed  connections i 

Use  of  either  of  the  other  rosettes o 

10.   Knot 

"  Underwriter's  knot''  (see  blueprint  10  w-i,  Fig.  4)  or 

wires  taped  to  prevent  pulling  through  rosette i 

Absence  of  knot  or  tape o 

n.   Screws 

Connections,  screws  and  rosette  tight i 

Connection  screws  loose o 

12.   Lamp  Cord 

Lamp  cord  ends  twisted  and  soldered i 

Ends  not  twisted  or  not  soldered o 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  301 

TRADE  TEST 
MACHINIST  AND   MECHANIC.  —  General 

(Bench  Hand  and  Assembler) 
PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

i  Machinists'  Bench  Vise;   4  inch  jaw,  to  weigh  not  less  than 

40  pounds. 
4  Feet  of-  bench  space. 

Material : 

i  piece  of  cold  rolled  steel  \  x  i  x  3!  inches. 

Tools: 

i  Miller  Falls  adjustable  hack  saw  frame. 
3  8  inch  Star  hack  saw  blades, 
i  8  inch  flat  file,  #00  cut.1 

1  8  inch  flat  file,  #o  cut.1 

2  Wooden  File  Handles. 

i  9  inch  Starrett  combination  square.2 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  EXAMINER 

4 

i.  Make  certain  that  the  TEST  EQUIPMENT  is  complete  and 
ready  for  the  test. 

1  This  is  the  Nicholson  size  and  cut  of  file,  but  another  make  of  file,  with 
equivalent  size  and  cut,  may  be  used. 

2  This  square  will  also  be  used  to  score  the  test  product. 


302 


TRADE    TESTS 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


303 


j—     *j  z 

z    S       g  ^ 

III 


2    eg 
Q    «j 


|!| 

I  |  -S 
o  «  £ 
8  1  ? 


O       JC        .— 

T3       ra      Q. 


2.  Record  the  time  required  by  the  candidate  to  do  the  work.    Do 
not  include  the  time  spent  in  giving  preliminary  instructions. 

3.  Use  Plate  6-g,  No.  2,  to  identify  the  parts  and  measurements  re- 
ferred to  in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCORING.    Do  not  permit  the  can- 
didate to  see  this  plate. 

4.  Hand  the  candidate  blue-print  6-g,  No.  i. 


304  TRADE    TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   THE   CANDIDATE 

1.  Say  to  the  candidate:  " Look  at  the  instructions  on  this  blue-print 
while  I  read  them."    Read  distinctly  and  slowly  all  legends  and 
measurements.    Point  to  each  thing  as  you  read  it. 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:   "Are  there  any  questions?" 

3.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  on  the 
blue-print.    Do  not  change  them  in  any  way. 

4.  If  the  candidate  approaches  the  examiner  after  he  has  commenced 
work  and  informs  the  examiner  that  he  has  made  a  mistake  and 
asks  of  the  examiner  what  he  shall  do,  say:  "Go  ahead  and  make 
a  good  fit  any  way." 

5.  Answer  no  other  questions  the  candidate  may  ask. 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO   THE   SCORER 

1.  Before  attempting  to  score  any  part  of  the  product,  read  through 
carefully  the  entire  BASIS  FOR  SCORING. 

2.  Identify  each  Scoring  Unit  with  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
product  so  that  you  will  understand  what  parts  of  the  product  are 
to  be  scored. 

3.  Identify  each  condition  described  in  the  Requirements  with  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  product.    Use  plate  6-g  to  facilitate  this 
identification. 

4.  Consider  each  Scoring  Unit  singly  and  in  the  order  specified. 
Make  certain  you  can  identify  the  conditions  which  receive  full, 
partial,  or  zero  scores. 

5.  Score  each  part  of  the  product  separately  and  in  the  order  specified. 

6.  Score  each  Scoring  Unit  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  printed 
Requirements. 

7.  Add  up  the  credits  which  the  candidate  obtains  on  the  individual 
Scoring  Units.    This  is  the  candidate's  Quality  Score. 

8.  Study  carefully  Figures  i,  2  and  3  on  Plate  6-g,  No.  2.     When 
recording  read  all  measurements  to  the  nearest  64th  of  an  inch. 
Record  the  actual  measurement  first  —  then  determine  its  varia- 
tion. 

Fig.  i  shows  the  assembled  product. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  305 

Fig.  2  shows  how  to  obtain  the  measurements  CD-EF,  CJ,  KF, 
and  the  squareness  of  the  pieces  at  A  and  H. 

Fig.  3  shows  how  the  pieces  should  be  placed  on  the  steel  rule 
of  the  square  to  obtain  measurements  BC,  IJ,  IJ-KL,  i.e.,  the 
distance  between  the  two  pieces  at  these  points  when  fitted 
together. 

BASIS   FOR  SCORING 

Scoring  Unit  Requirements  Score 

1.  CD-EF.     Record  distances   CD   and  EF  to  the  nearest 

64th  of  an  inch.  Fig.  2  shows  how  these  meas- 
urements are  to  be  obtained.  Allow  a  varia- 
tion (from  if  inch)  on  each  CD  and  EF  of 
^jth  of  an  inch  plus  or  minus  without  record- 
ing it  as  a  variation,  i.e.,  an  actual  variation 
of  i*rths  will  be  called  -^ths.  Sum  the  variations 
for  both  pieces,  disregarding  the  signs,  i.e.,  plus 
or  minus. 
¥Vth  inch  or  less  variation  (allowing  for  ^th 

inch  plus  or  minus) 4 

Between  ^ths  and  ifths  inclusive 3 

Between  -g-j-ths  and  ffths  inclusive 2 

Between  ffths  and  ffths  inclusive i 

Beyond  §f  ths o 

2.  CJ.  Record  the  distance  CT  to  the  nearest  64th  of 

inch.     Fig.   2  shows  how  to  obtain  this  meas- 
urement.    Allow  no  variation. 
Less    than    -^th   inch    variation  from   ^ths 

inch 4 

^tth  variation,  plus  or  minus 2 

More  than  -gV th  inch  variation o 

3.  KF.  Record  distance  KF  to  the  nearest  64th  of  an 

inch.    Fig.  2  shows  how  to  obtain  this  measure- 
ment.   Allow  no  variation. 
Less  than  ^th  inch  variation  from  r&ths  inch .       4 

•^fth  variation,  plus  or  minus 2 

More  than  ^rth  inch  variation o 


306  TRADE    TESTS 

4.  A.  Fig.  2  shows  how  the  squareness  at  A  and  H 

are  measured.  Place  corner  A  in  the  angle  of 
the  square  so  that  side  AB  rests  squarely  against 
the  hand  piece.  If  the  angle  is  less  than  90° 
read  (to  nearest  64th  inch)  distance  from  rule 
edge  to  Point  E.  If  angle  is  greater  than  90° 
permit  point  E  to  rest  against  rule  and  read 
distance  from  point  A  to  the  rule.  Use  the 
6-inch  steel  scale  to  obtain  these  measurements. 
Allow  no  variation. 

Less  than  ^Vth  inch  variation 6 

•^ith  inch  variation >. .' . .       a 

72Tths  inches  or  more  variation o 

5.  H.  The  squareness  at  H  is  obtained  in  the  same 

manner  as  the  squareness  at  A. 

Less  than  ^Vth  inch  variation 6 

•sVth  mch  variation . 2 

^2Tths  inches  or  more  variation o 

6.  BC-IJ.       How  the  accuracy  of  the  fit  between  the  two 

pieces  is  obtained  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Place 
edges  EF  and  GH  against  the  straight  edge 
of  the  rule  and  press  the  two  pieces  to- 
gether. Use  the  small  steel  scale  to  obtain  the 
distances  between  BC  and  IJ.  Make  certain 
that  the  45°  angle  runs  upward  to  the  right. 
Less  than  ^rth  inch  space  between  the  two 

pieces 8 

inch  space  between  the  two  pieces. ...       2 
inch  space  between  the  two  pieces. . .       o 

7.  IJ-KL.      Obtain  the  distance  between  the  edges  IJ-KL 

while  the  two  pieces  are  in  position  described 

Scoring  Unit  6. 
Less  than  -g^th  inch  space  between  the  two 

pieces 8 

•^4 th  inch  space  between  the  two  pieces 2 

inch  space  between  the  two  pieces ...       o 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  307 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   RATER 

1.  Rate  a  candidate's  proficiency  in  his  trade  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing standards: 

2.  Rate  a  candidate  E  who  scores  33  points  and  above. 

3.  Rate  a  candidate  J  who  fulfills  both  the  following  requirements: 

(1)  Score:  10  to  30  points  inclusive. 

(2)  Time:  120  minutes  or  less. 

4.  Rate  a  candidate  A  who  fulfills  one  of  the  following  requirements 

(1)  Score:  i  to  20  points  inclusive,  or 

(2)  Time:  121  minutes  or  longer. 

5.  Rate  a  candidate  N  who  scores  less  than  one  point. 


308  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 

MACHINIST  AND   MECHANIC.  —  Lathe 
Operator 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

i     Cast  iron  surface  plate  7x7^  inches,  weight  approximately  10 

Ibs. 
i     Cadillac  steering  spindle.1 

Tools: 

6  inch  Outside  spring  caliper,  Brown  &  Sharpe  No.  806. 
6  inch  Inside  spring  caliper,  Brown  &  Sharpe  No.  807. 
9  inch  Combination  square. 

0  to  i  inch  micrometer  caliper  with  ratchet  stop. 

1  to  2  inch  micrometer  caliper  with  ratchet  stop. 
Pencil. 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE  EXAMINER 

1.  Make  certain  that  the  TEST  EQUIPMENT  is  complete  and  ready 
for  the  test. 

2.  Hand  the  candidate  blue-print  6-L,  No.  i. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   THE   CANDIDATE 

i.  Say  to  the  candidate:  "Look  at  the  instructions  on  this  blue-print 
while  I  read  them."  Read  distinctly  and  slowly  all  legends  and 
measurements.  Point  to  each  thing  as  you  read  it. 

1  Cadillac  Price  List  of  Parts,  1919.     Part  number  KK  3063. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


309 


2.  Say  to  the  candidate:   "Are  there  any  questions?" 

3.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  on  the 
blue-print.    Do  not  change  them  in  any  way. 

4.  Answer  any  questions  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test  by 
repeating  the  instructions  on  the  blue  -print. 


With  these  Tools  Measure  this  Piece  where 
shown  on  this  Drawing  by  Letters  "A"-"  B"-"C"-etc 
Give  all  Measurements  to  the  One  Thousandth 
Part  of  an  Inch. 

Write  these  Measurements  on  a  separate 
Piece  of  Paper. 


WAR  DEPARTMENT 
Committee  on  Classification 

of  Personnel 
TRADE  TEST  DIVISION 

Performance  Test 
Drawing  No.  1          Approved 
7-10-18  6-L 


INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   SCORER 

1.  Score  the  candidate  upon  the  Basis  of  the  Measurements  which  he 
writes  on  the  slip  of  paper  supplied.     All  measurements  are  in 
inches.     "Variations"  in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCORING  refers  to 
variation  from  the  correct  measurement. 

2.  Candidates  will  be  scored  in  terms  of  variations  from  the  correct 
measurements  of  the  parts  of  the  piece.    A  set  of  correct  measure- 
ments will  be  furnished  with  each  steering  spindle. 


310  TRADE    TESTS 

3.  Before  attempting  to  score  any  measurement,  read  through  care- 
fully the  entire  BASIS  FOR  SCORING. 

4.  Identify  each  Scoring  Unit  with  the  corresponding  measurement 
so  that  you  will  understand  what  measurements  are  to  be  scored. 

5.  Identify  each  condition  described  in  the  Requirements  with  the 
corresponding  measurement. 

6.  Consider  each  Scoring  Unit  singly  and  in  the  order  specified. 

7.  Score  each  measurement  separately  and  in  the  order  specified. 
Make  certain  of  the  degrees  of  variation  which  receive  full,  partial 
and  zero  scores. 

8.  Score  each  Scoring  Unit  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  printed 
Requirements. 

9.  Add  up  the  credits  which  the  candidate  obtains  on  the  individual 
Scoring  Units.    This  is  the  candidate's  Quality  Score. 


BASIS   FOR  SCORING 
Scoring  Unit  Requirements  Score 

1.  A.  Measurement  A. 

Less  than  .0005  variation 8 

.0005  variation,  plus  or  minus .' .  .  .  2 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form.  o 

Measurement  not  recorded o 

2.  8  Measurement  B. 

Less  than  .0005  variation 8 

.0005  variation,  plus  or  minus 2 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form.  o 

Measurement' not  recorded o 

3.  C.  Measurement  C. 

Less  than  .005  variation 4 

.01  variation 2 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form . .  o 

Measurement  not  recorded...  o 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  311 

4.  D.  Measurement  D. 

.002  variation 8 

.005  variation 2 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form. .  o 

Measurement  not  recorded o 

5.  E.  Measurement  E. 

.012  variation 8 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form  o 

Measurement  not  recorded o 

6.  F.  Measurement  F. 

.1  variation 4 

.3  variation 2 

Great  variation o 

Measurement  recorded  in  fractional  form . .  o 

Measurement  not  recorded o 

7.  G.  Measurement  G. 

.2  variation  less  than  correct  measurement.       8 

Greater  variation o 

Measurement  not  recorded o 

(If  measurement  is  recorded  in  fractional 
form  transmute  to  decimal.) 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   RATER 

1.  Rate  a  candidate's  proficiency  in  his  trade  according  to  the  follow- 
ing standards: 

Score  Rating 

25  or  less A 

26  or  more E 

2.  Rate  a  candidate  J  who  receives 

(1)  Rating  A  on  this  performance  test  and  a 

(2)  Rating  J  or  higher  on  Picture  Trade  Test.* 

*See  Picture  tests,     p.  218. 


312  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
BLACKSMITH.  —  General 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

i     Blacksmith's  forge, 
i     Blacksmith's  anvil. 

1  ten  quart  pail. 

Material : 

2  pieces  B  B  square  rod  iron  f  inches  square  and  4  inches  long. 
Coke. 

Water. 

Tools: 

i  Ball  Peen  Hammer,  2  Ibs. 

i  Round  eye  punch,  size  of  point  \  inch  with  handle. 

i  Pair  Blacksmith's  Tongs;  Cast  Steel,  18  inches  straight  lip. 

i  Straight  Hardie,  shank  to  fit  anvil. 

i  Pair  6  inch  outside  calipers. 

i  1 2-inch  metal  blacksmith's  rule. 

Scoring  Tools : 

i     6-inch  Steel  Scale,  sixty-fourths. 
i     6-inch  outside  spring  caliper. 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE  EXAMINER 

i.   Make  certain  that  the  TEST  EQUIPMENT  is  complete  and 
ready  for  the  test 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


313 


2.  Record  the  time  when  the  candidate  begins  to  work  on  the  hook 
and  when  he  finishes  it.  Do  not  include  the  time  spent  hi  giving 
preliminary  instructions. 


3.  Use  Plate  y-g  to  identify  the  parts  and  measurements  referred  to 
in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCORING.    Do  not  permit  the  candidate  to 
see  this  plate. 

4.  Hand  the  candidate  blue-print  y-g,  No.  i. 


314  TRADE    TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  CANDIDATE 

1.  Say  to  the  candidate:  "  Build  a  fire  in  that  forge."    Do  not  include 
the  time  required  to  build  the  fire  in  the  time  recorded  to  make 
the  hook.    (A  fire  is  usually  built  in  15  minutes  or  less.) 

2.  When  the  candidate  has  built  the  fire,  say:    "Are  you  ready  to 
take  this  test?" 

3.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Look  at  the  instructions  on  this  blue- 
print while  I  read  them."    Read  distinctly  and  slowly  all  legends 
and  measurements.    Point  to  each  thing  as  you  read  it. 

4.  Say  to  the  candidate:   "Are  there  any  questions?" 

5.  Repeat,  if  necessary,  all  or  any  part  of  the  instructions  on  the 
blue-print.    Do  not  change  them  in  any  way. 

6.  Answer  any  questions  the  candidate  may  ask  during  the  test  by 
repeating  that  part  of  the  prescribed  instructions  which  relate  to 
the  question  asked. 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   SCORER 

1.  Before  attempting  to  score  any  part  of  the  product,  read  through 
carefully  the  entire  BASIS  FOR  SCORING. 

2.  Identify  each  Scoring  Unit  with  the  corresponding  part  of  the 
product  so  that  you  will  understand  what  parts  of  the  product  are 
to  be  scored. 

3.  Identify  each  condition  described  in  the  Requirements  with  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  product.    Use  plate  y-g  to  facilitate  this 
identification. 

4.  Consider  each  Scoring  Unit  singly  and  in  the  order  specified. 
Make  certain  you  can  identify  the  conditions  which  receive  full, 
partial,  and  zero  scores. 

5  Score  each  part  of  the  product  separately  and  in  the  order  specified. 

6.  Score  each  Scoring  Unit  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  printed 
Requirements. 

7.  Add  up  the  credits  which  the  candidate  obtains  on  the  individual 
Scoring  Units.    This  is  the  candidate's  Quality  Score. 

8.  Subtract  from  60  the  time  required  by  the  candidate  to  make  this 
hook.    This  is  the  candidate's  Time  Score.    Add  the  Time  Score 
to  the  Quality  Score.    This  is  the  candidate's  Performance  Test 
Score. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


315 


316 


TRADE    TESTS 


BASIS   FOR   SCORING 


Scoring  Unit  Requirements  Credit 

1.  Operations.     Forging    this   hook   involves  five  opera- 

tions. For  all  operations  performed,  al- 
though incorrectly 74 

For    each    operation    omitted    subtract 

scores  according  to  the  following  schedule :  Subtract 

(1)  Preparing  the  weld  (Fig.  2).    This 
is  the  minimum  acceptable  perform- 
ance for  rating  a  candidate  "A" 

(2)  Welding 12 

(3)  Twisting 12 

(4)  Punching  the  eye 24 

(5)  Bending  the  hook 24 

2.  Twist.  Follow  through  one  surface  of  the  twist.   Score 

One-half  twist  has  been  made  if  the  twist 
finishes  upon  the  side  opposite  from  the 
surface  where  it  began  (Fig.  i,  No.  2). 

One-half  twist  or  more 4 

Less  than  one-half  twist o 

Twist  not  at  place  of  welding o 

Surfaces  of  twist  so  irregular  that  num- 
ber of  quarter  turns  is  doubtful .        o 

Twist  not  made o 

3.  Lap.  At  both  ends  of  the  weld  the  metal  should 

be  joined  (welded)  so  as  to  make  the  sur- 
face continuous.  A  lack  of  union  (a  gap 
between  the  two  pieces  such  that  the 
shank  of  a  pin  will  readily  go  in)  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  forging  is  called  "lap." 
(Fig.  i,  No.  3,  indicates  where  this  lap  is 
likely  to  be  found.) 

Weld  shows  no  lap 4 

Lap  at  one  end  of  twist 2 

Lap  at  both  ends  of  twist o 

Less  than  \  turn  in  the  twist o 

Weld  not  made .  .  o 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


317 


4.   Rounding 
Tapering. 


5.   Squareness 
of  Stock. 


6.  Length 
overall. 


7.  Length. 


Rounding  and  Tapering  of  Hook  Bend. 
Bend  of  the  hook  is  tapered  and  rounded 

(Fig.  i,  No.  4) 

Bend  of  the  hook  is  tapered  but  not 
rounded,  or 

Rounded  but  not  tapered,  or 
Neither  rounded  nor  tapered,  or 

Hook  not  bent 

The  stock  should  be  square  at  points  S-i 
and  S-2.  This  scoring  unit  should  not  be 
credited  unless  (i)  the  hook  has  been 
bent,  (2)  twist  has  been  made,  (3)  eye  has 
been  punched.  Add  the  maximum  varia- 
tions (in  sixteenths  of  an  inch)  from 
squareness  for  both  dimensions  at  both 
points  (Fig.  2,  No.  5). 
Total  variation  iV  of  an  inch  or  less 

from  square 

Total  variation  more  than  ^  of  an 

inch  from  square 

Any  of  the  above  three  operations 
omitted 

Overall  length  of  hook  (Fig.  i,  No.  6). 
Credit  this  scoring  unit  o  if  one  of  these 
operations  has  been  omitted:  (i)  Twist- 
ing, (2)  Punching  eye,  (3)  Bending  hook. 

From  STS  to  5^  inches  inclusive 

From  5  inches  to  5^  inches  inclusive . . 
From  5TV  inches  to  $$%  inches  inclusive 
Shorter  or  longer  than  these  dimensions 
Any  one  of  above  three  operations 

omitted 

Length  of  hook  under  bend  (Fig.  i,  No.  7). 

2  inches  to  2  A  inches  inclusive 

IT*,  IT!,  2fV,  2^  inches 

Shorter  than  i||  or  longer  than  2TV  . 
Hook  not  bent 


318 


TRADE    TESTS 


8.  Width. 


9.  Eye 

centered. 


Eye 

rounded. 


Width  of  metal  encircling  eye.  Record 
this  dimension  for  the  narrowest  part  of 
the  eye  between  the  lines  limiting  the  f 
circumference  indicated  in  Fig.  i,  No.  10. 
Take  this  measurement  with  an  outside 
calipers. 

rV  or  TS  inch 8 

TS  inch 2 

Less  than  YS  inch o 

Eye  not  punched o 

Center  of  eye  on  center  line  of.  stock 

(Fig.  i,  No.  9) 8 

Center  of  eye  more  than  iV  of  an  inch  off 

center  line  of  stock '« 

Eye  not  punched o 

The  metal  encircling  the  eye  should  be 
rounded. 

Encircling  metal  rounded  for  f  of  its 
circumference  (i.e.  disregard  part  at 
stock  and  immediately  adjacent)  (Fig. 

i,  NO.  10) y> 

Encircling  metal  is  not  rounded  or  only 
a  feeble  attempt  has  been  made  to 

round  it o 

Encircling  metal  not  rounded o 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  RATER 

i.   Rate  a  candidate's  proficiency  in  his  trade  according  to  the  follow- 
ing standards: 

Score  Rating 

144  and  above E 

143  to  132  inclusive J 

131  to  2  inclusive A 

Less  than  2 N 

Inability  to  build  fire N 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  319 


TRADE   TEST 
STENOGRAPHER  AND   TYPIST.  —  Typist 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced -by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   THE  EXAMINER 

1.  Make  sure  that  the  typewriter  is  in  good  condition.    The  only 
form  of  supplies  needed  is  typewriter  paper,  85  x  n. 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Be  seated  at  this  typewriter.     Insert 
paper  and  adjust  the  typewriter  for  single  space." 

3.  When  these  instructions  have  been  complied  with  give  to  the 
candidate  the  loose  sheet  of  test  copy  and  say:  "Copy  this  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  making  no  erasures  and  as  few  mistakes  as  possible, 
and  report  to  me  as  soon  as  you  are  through." 

4.  Record  the  starting  time  in  minutes  and  seconds.    This  repre- 
sents the  time  at  which  the  copy  is  handed  to  the  candidate,  not 
necessarily  the  time  that  he  begins  to  write. 

5.  Record  the  time  when  the  candidate  gives  to  the  examiner 
the  finished  typewritten  copy. 

6.  Record  on  the  candidate's  individual  score  card  his  name,  and 
the  total  time  in  minutes.     Ignore  the  fractional  part  of  a  minute. 

7.  Determine  the  number  of  errors.    An  error  is  any  error  in  a 
word  or  the  space  or  punctuation  immediately  following  a  word.    A 
word  which  has  several  errors  is  counted  as  one  error.    Record  the 
number  of  errors  on  the  score  card. 

COPY 

The  truck  company  is  normally  organized  into  three  sections  of 
nine  trucks,  each  section  under  command  of  an  assistant  truckmaster. 


820  TRADE    TESTS 

The  service  trucks  not  forming  an  integral  part  of  the  cargo  sec- 
tions are  usually  kept  under  the  immediate  orders  of  the  truckmaster. 
When  the  company  is  not  operating  as  a  train,  or  when  gasoline- 
supply  trucks  are  not  needed,  these  trucks  may  be  assigned  to  cargo 
work,  and  in  such  case  should  be  attached  to  sections. 

The  administration  of  a  truck  company  is  identical  with  that  of  a 
company,  troop,  or  battery.  The  company  commander  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  operation,  supply,  and  discipline  of  his  command.  He  is 
assisted  by  the  truckmaster,  whose  duties  are  analogous  to  those  of 
a  first  sergeant.  The  truckmaster  is  the  executive,  and  sees  that  all 
orders  or  instructions  are  properly  carried  out. 

Each  assistant  truckmaster  is  responsible  for  the  discipline  of  the 
men  of  his  section,  and  for  the  proper  operation  and  up-keep  of  the 
equipment  assigned  thereto.  All  orders  or  instructions  to  various 
members  of  a  section  should  be  given  to  the  assistant  truckmaster 
in  charge  thereof  and  he  should  be  held  rigidly  accountable  for  the 
condition  and  operation  of  his  section. 

The  assistant  mechanics  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  me- 
chanic, who  should  be  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  truck- 
master.  They  perform  such  mechanical  work  as  the  company  com- 
mander may  direct. 

The  mess  sergeant  has  general  charge  of  the  mess,  and  the  cooks 
are  under  his  supervision.  He  has  control  of  all  materials  and  sup- 
plies for  the  company,  and  is  accountable  for  their  proper  issue  and 
use.  He  is  assisted  in  care  and  issues  of  property  by  one  of  the  assist- 
ant chauffeurs,  usually  by  assis  ant  chauffeur  of  the  light  repair 
truck  or  cargo  truck  clerk,  etc.  The  company  clerk  keeps  all  records 
of  personnel,  property  and  operation,  and  performs  such  other  duties 
as  the  company  commander  may  require. 

RATING  THE  CANDIDATE 

i.  Multiply  the  number  of  minutes  by  ten.  Ignore  the  fractional 
part  of  a  minute. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  321 

2.  Add  the  number  of  errors. 

3.  This  sum  is  the  candidate's  score.    Rate  the  candidate  accord- 
ing to  the  following  table: 

Expert:  o  to  85  inclusive  with  not  more  than  five  errors 

Journeyman:  o  to  86  inclusive  with  more  than  five  errors. 

Apprentice:  87  to  150  inclusive. 

Novice:  151  and  above. 


322  TRADE    TESTS 


TRADE  TEST 
STENOGRAPHER  AND   TYPIST.  —  Stenographer 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE  EXAMINER 

1.  Make  sure  that  the  typewriter  is  in  good  condition.    The  nec- 
essary supplies  are  typewriter  paper  85  x  n,  a  stenographer's  note- 
book, and  pencil. 

2.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Be  seated  at  this  table."    Give  him 
the  notebook  and  pencil. 

3.  Give  the  candidate  the  loose  sheet  of  copy  and  say,  "Copy 
this  in  shorthand  as  rapidly  as  you  can  without  making  mistakes." 

4.  Record  the  starting  time  in  minutes  and  seconds.    This  rep- 
resents the  time  at  which  the  copy  is  handed  to  the  candidate,  not 
necessarily  the  time  that  he  begins  to  write. 

5.  Record  the  time  when  the  candidate  gives  to  the  examiner  the 
finished  notes  and  the  sheet  of  test  copy. 

6.  Record  on  the  individual  score  card  the  candidate's  name,  and 
the  total  time.    Ignore  the  fractional  part  of  a  minute. 

7.  Say  to  the  candidate:    "Be  seated  at  this  typewriter.    Insert 
paper  and  adjust  the  typewriter  for  single  space." 

8.  When  these  instructions  have  been  complied  with,  give  to 
the  candidate  his  stenographic  notes  and  say:   "Copy  this  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  making  no  erasures,  and  as  few  mistakes  as  possible; 
and  report  to  me  as  soon  as  you  are  through." 

9.  Record  the  starting  time  in  minutes  and  seconds. 

10.   Record  the  time  when  the  candidate  gives  to  the  examiner 
the  finished  typewritten  copy. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  323 

11.  Record  on  the  candidate's  score  card  the  total  time  of  tran- 
scribing in  minutes.    Ignore  the  fractional  part  of  a  minute. 

12.  Determine  the  number  of  errors.    An  error  is  any  error  in  a 
word,  or  the  space  or  punctuation  immediately  following  a  word.    A 
word  which  has  several  errors  is  counted  as  one  error.    Record  the 
number  of  errors  on  the  score  card. 

COPY 

This  is  the  kind  of  ambition  which  creates  things  and  which  pushes 
the  world  along;  an  ambition  to  do  or  to  be,  to  produce  or  to  master 
something,  and  which  never  for  an  instant  loses  sight  of  the  point 
first  aimed  at  unless  it  be  to  aim  at  some  point  which  is  still  higher 
and  still  harder  to  hit.  That  sort  of  ambition  consists  of  only  two 
elements,  work  and  purpose;  all  men  have  had  it  who  have  striven 
with  a  definite  end  in  view,  even  though  some  of  them  might  not  be 
willing  to  call  it  by  that  name.  The  dictionary  gives  several  mean- 
ings of  the  word,  but  it  matters  very  little  which  you  accept,  for  the 
end  is  always  the  same;  if  you  work  with  a  desire  to  make  a  name  for 
yourself,  or  if  you  try  to  establish  an  idea  which  you  know  to  be 
right,  you  follow  the  same  lines,  and  the  method  you  adopt  has  for 
its  basis  ambition;  there  is  no  other  word  which  can  take  its  place 
and  no  other  which  has  even  a  similar  meaning. 

Ambition  may  be  counted  as  one  of  the  best  qualities  of  the 
human  race;  to  be  sure  it  has  led  to  evil  a  great  many  tunes,  or  to 
what  has  seemed  at  first  to  be  such,  but  I  doubt  if  there  has  ever  been 
a  case  where  a  great  ambition  did  not  in  the  end  result  in  great  good 
to  all  mankind.  Napoleon  has  been  called  the  most  ambitious  man 
that  ever  lived  and  crimes  without  number  have  been  laid  at  the  door 
of  that  ambition,  all  of  which  may  be  true,  but  today  the  world  is 
better  in  many  ways  because  he  lived  in  it  and  because  he  was  ambi- 
tious. An  ambition  to  make  money,  to  have  a  large  pay  envelope,  has 
been  sneered  at  as  unworthy  the  thought  of  any  young  person;  that 
is  entirely  wrong,  for  say  what  you  will  there  are  a  thousand  and 
one  things  that  make  for  the  best  good  of  everybody  which  can  only 
be  had  through  the  medium  of  hard  cash;  we  should  dress  well  and 
read  good  books;  we  should  surround  ourselves  with  a  certain  amount 
of  what  have  been  termed  luxuries  but  which  are  fast  becoming  neces- 


324  TRADE    TESTS 

sides;  all  these  things  cost  money  and  to  get  money  we  must  earn  it; 
therefore  the  ambition  for  a  large  pay  envelope  is  simply  an  ambition 
for  better  conditions  in  life,  than  which  there  can  be  no  more  worthy 
ambition. 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 

1.  Add  the  two  time  scores.     Multiply  the  sum  by  ten.    This  is 
the  candidate's  time  score. 

2.  Add  to  the  time  score  the  number  of  errors.    This  sum  is  the 
candidate's  final  score. 

3.  Rate  the  candidate  according  to  the  following  table: 

Expert:  Score  o  to  225  inclusive  with  less  than  13  errors. 

Journeyman:  Score  o  to  225  inclusive  with  more  than  12  errors 
and  less  than  26  errors 

or,  score  226  to  300  inclusive  with  less  than  26  errors. 

Apprentice:     Score  o  to  300  inclusive  with  more  than  25  errors 

or,  score  301  to  500. 

Novice:  Score  501  or  more. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


325 


TRADE  TEST 
CHAUFFEUR.  —  Truck  Driver 

PERFORMANCE 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 


TEST  EQUIPMENT 
Equipment : 

i.  Area.    The  course  for  the  truck  driver's  trade  test  requires: 

a.  A  plot  of  fairly  level  ground  330  ft.  long  and  125  ft.  wide. 

b.  A  hill  grade  between  i£  and  2\  inches  to  the  foot,  with 
a  surface  not  less  than  50  ft.  long  (with  grade)  and  36' ft. 
wide. 


326 


TRADE    TESTS 


2.   US.  Army  truck,  Type    B,  specifications  for   which    are   as 
follows: 

a.  Left  hand  drive. 

b.  Steering  radius,  28  ft.  3  in. 

c.  Tread:  front,  64  in.;  rear,  64!  in. 

d.  Wheel  base,  i6o£  in. 

e.  Overall  length  of  body:  152!  in. 

f.  Overall  width  of  body:  86£  in. 

g.  Sun  hood  over  driver's  seat. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  327 

3.   Course  construction.     (See  Plate  23-1) 

a.  All  parts  of  the  course  between  posts  i  and  6  inclusive 
will    be    located   according   to   the   accompanying   blue- 
print dimensions.     The  hill  may  be  placed  where  prac- 
tical for  the  topography  of  the  space  available  and  con- 
sistent with  giving  the  different  parts  of  the  test  specified. 

b.  The  entire  course  will  be  covered  with  2  to  4  inches  of 
cinders.     (Finely  crushed  stone  may  be  substituted.) 

c.  The  "S"  road  will  be  marked  off  by  white  stakes,  5  ft. 
apart,  i?  inches  (approximately)  in  diameter  or  diagonal 
and  4  ft.  6  in.  or  higher  above  the  ground.    These  stakes 
will  be  driven  into  the  ground  so  that  they  will  fall  down 
readily  when  hit  by  the  truck. 

d.  Numbered  posts  will  carry  white  signs  with  appropriate 
numbers  in  black.     Signs  will  be  8  x  10  inches  (approxi- 
mately).   The  bottom  of  the  sign  will  be  4  ft.  6  inches 
(approximately)  from  the  ground. 

e.  Posts  5  and  6  consist  of  i  x  12  inch  boards  supported  by 
2x4  inch  posts  or  larger.    The  bottom  of  the  board  will 
be  4!  ft.  from  the  ground.    The  boards  should  be  attached 
loosely  (screw  eye  and  nail)  so  that  they  can  readily  be 
knocked  off. 

f.  Blind  street  will  have  curb  of  white  board.    For  dimen- 
sions and  construction  see  Plate  23-!.    The  curb  will  be 
attached  loosely  (screw  eye  and  nail)  so  that  it  can  be 
readily  knocked  down. 

*g.  A  post  will  be  driven  10  feet  from  post  No.  8  (as  shown 
on  Plate  23-1)  flush  with  the  ground,  to  guide  examiner 
in  scoring  error  No.  27. 
Materials : 

5    Posts  2x4  inches  (or  larger)  x  6  ft.     (For  sign  posts  i,  2,  3, 

4,8.) 

4    Posts  2x4  inches  (or  larger)  x  6  ft.  6  in.    (For  posts  5  and  6.) 
15     Posts  2x4  inches  (or  larger)  x  18  in.    (For  white  board  curb.) 
i     Post  2x4  inches  (or  larger)  x  30  in.    (For  post  7.) 
8    Boards  i  x  8  x  10  inches.     (For  numbered  signs.) 
3    Boards  fx4  inches  x  12  feet.     (For  curbing  blind  alley.) 


328  TRADE    TESTS 

10    Boards  f  x  4  inches  x  10  feet.     (For  curbing  blind  alley.) 
i     Board  1x12  inches  x  n  feet.    (For  post  6.) 
i     Board  1x12  inches  x  5  feet.    (For  post  5.) 
95     Stakes  i^  x  i|  in.  x  5  feet. 

The  thickness  of  these  boards  may  approximate  the  dimen- 
sions given. 
Whitewash. 
Black  paint. 
Whitewash  brush. 
Small  brush  for  sign  painting. 

Tools: 

Hammers. 

Cross  cut  saw. 

Rip  saw. 

Axe. 

Shovels. 

Mallet  —  10  Ib.  wood. 

Nails. 

Measuring  tape. 

These  tools  are  used  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 

the  course. 


INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  EXAMINER 

1.  Give  this  test  only  with  a  U.S.  Army  Truck,  Type  B,  of  above 
specifications. 

2.  Make  certain  that  the  truck  is  in  good  running  order  before  the 
test  begins.    Care  will  be  taken  to  have  the  accelerator  working 
properly.    Guard  against  scoring  the  candidate  for  racing  the  en- 
gine when  the  accelerator  is  at  fault. 

3.  Empty  the  truck;  let  down  the  tail  board;  roll  up  back  and  side 
curtains  of  sunhood. 

4.  Have  each  candidate  begin  the  test  at  post  No.  i .    The  truck  will 
be  at  the  right  side  of  post  No.  i ,  with  engine  running  ready  for 
the  candidate  to  drive. 

5.  Permit  only  one  candidate  at  a  time  to  ride  on  the  truck. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  329 

6.  If  a  candidate  quits  the  test  at  any  part  of  the  course  bring  the 
truck  to  post  No.  i.     Under  no  circumstances  will  a  candidate  be 
permitted  to  get  on  the  truck  at  any  part  of  the  course  other  than 
at  post  No.  i. 

7.  Stop  the  test  if  the  candidate  is  obviously  incompetent. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  CANDIDATE 

1.  When  the  candidate  is  in  the  driver's  seat  ready  for  the  test  at 
post  No.  i,  say:  " 

a.  "Do  you  know  this  gear  shift?" 

b.  "Shift  to  first.    Shift  to  second.    Shift  to  third.    Reverse." 
Have  the  candidate  shift  to  each  speed  as  you  instruct  him. 

c.  "Which  is  the  spark?    Which  is  the  gas?"    Have  the  can- 
didate operate  each  of  these  levers. 

d.  "Do  you  know  how  to  work  that  accelerator?"    Have  the 
candidate  use  the  accelerator. 

2.  The  examiner  or  an  expert  truck  driver  acting  as  assistant  will 

occupy  the  seat  to  the  right  of  the  candidate  and  give  him 
all  instruction  necessary  concerning  gear  shift,  ignition, 
throttle  and  acceleration.  In  no  case  will  this  expert  or 
examiner  give  instruction  after  preliminary  practice. 

3.  During  the  preliminary  practice  do  not  shift  gears  or  regulate 
spark  or  throttle  for  the  candidate.    Force  the  candidate  to  learn 
how  to  handle  the  truck  here  by  having  him  do  all  the  necessary 
operations. 

4.  At  the  posts,  listed  under  INSTRUCTIONS  AND  BASIS  FOR 
SCORING,  give  the  candidate  the  instructions  indicated. 

5.  Repeat  if  necessary  any  or  all  of  the  prescribed  instructions.    Do 
not  change  them  in  any  way. 

6.  If  a  candidate  asks  a  question  involving  a  choice  between  driving 
one  way  or  another,  say:   "Do  what  you  think  best." 

7.  Point  out  to  the  candidate  the  posts  or  parts  of  road  referred  to 
in  the  instructions. 

8.  When  the  candidate  has  driven  from  post  No.  8  to  post  No.  i, 
permit  the  engine  to  run,  so  that  the  succeeding  candidate  may 
start  driving. 


330  TRADE    TESTS 

INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   SCORER 

1.  The  candidate's  score  is  the  number  of  errors  he  makes.     Each 
kind  of  error  is  tabulated  in  the  BASIS  FOR  SCORING. 

2.  Before  attempting  to  score  any  part  of  the  performance,  read 
through  carefully  the  entire  BASIS  FOR  SCORING. 

3.  Score  each  error  singly  and  at  the  time  of  performance. 

4.  Score  each  error  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  printed  Errors. 

5.  Be  careful  to  put  the  score  in  the  appropriate  space  on  C.C.P. 
577.     Guard  against  putting  the  score  for  error  No.  12  in  space 
No.   13. 

6.  If  an  error  is  made Score  i 

If  an  error  is  not  made Score  o 

7.  If,  because  of  demonstrated  inability  the  candidate  has  not  been 
permitted  to  complete  the  test,  score  each  subsequent  Scoring 
Unit  as  an  error. 

8.  If  a  candidate  makes  error  n  he  also  makes  errors  12  and  13. 


INSTRUCTIONS   TO   THE   RATER 

1.  Rate  a  candidate's  proficiency  as  truck  driver  according  to  the 
following  standards: 

Errors  Rate 

3  or  less E 

4  to  9  inclusive J 

jo  to  15  inclusive A 

16  or  more N 

2.  An  expert  (E)  is  capable  of  handling  a  truck  with  great  efficiency 
and  skill. 

A  journeyman  (J)  is  an  acceptable  driver  competent  for  ordinary 
driving. 

An  apprentice  (A)  should  not  be  trusted  with  a  truck  until  given 
further  instructions. 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST 


331 


Post 


INSTRUCTIONS   AND   BASIS  FOR   SCORING 
Instructions  Scoring  Unit  (Errors) 


"The  first  part  of  this  is  pre- 
liminary practice  and  does 
not  count.  Drive  to  the 
right  side  of  post  2,  over  to 
post  3  and  then  back  up  again 
to  post  2." 


No  scoring. 


No.  2.    "Now  back  up  to  the  right 
side  of  post  2." 


No  scoring. 


No.  3.  "Drive  to  the  right  side  of 
post  4  and  then  through  that 
'S'  shaped  road  without 
touching  any  stakes.  Drive 
at  the  speed  you  think  best." 


From  Post  2  to  Post  4. 

1.  Races  engine  when  starting  or 
shifting. 

2.  Abrupt     start  —  truck     jumps, 
acceleration  uneven. 


'       r               __  •                                         3- 

4- 

First  speed  from  post  2  to  4. 
Grinds  gears  in  shifting. 

No  4.    At  the  exit  of  the  "S"  shaped 
road,  say:   "Drive  your  hood        5. 
up  into  the  center  of  No.  5." 
6. 

7- 
8. 
9- 

From  Post  4  to  Post  5. 
Knocks  down  stake  in  first  half 
circle. 
Knocks   down   stake   in   second 
half  circle. 
Jerky  driving. 
Stops  truck. 
Hits  any  part  of  No.  5. 

No.  5.  As  soon  as  the  candidate  has 
driven  up  to  the  board,  say: 

"  Back  through  that  curved 
road  without  knocking  down 
any  stakes." 

If  the  candidate  knocks 
down  four  stakes  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  circle,  say: 

"Drive  out  and  drive  into 
the  other  end." 

(Indicate  clearly  that  he  is  to 
drive  front  end  in  —  into  the 
other  end  of  this  third  half 
circle.) 


From  Post  5  to  Post  6. 

10.  More   than   one   direct   backing 
to  enter  third  half  circle. 

11.  Knocks    down    more    than    one 
stake. 

12.  Stops    truck   or   drives   forward 
more  than  once. 

13.  Jerky  driving. 

14.  More  than  one  backing  to  reach 
platform  No.  6. 

15.  Hits  platform. 

16.  Truck  not  square  with  platform. 

17.  Sides  of   truck   off   to    one   side 
of  posts. 


332 


TRADE    TESTS 


Have  the  truck  driven  in- 
side the  stake  at  "A,"  i.e.,  in 
that  position  where  it  would 
have  been  had  the  candidate 
backed  through  successfully. 
At  the  exit  from  this  road, 
say: 

"Back  up  to  platform  No. 
6  as  if  you  were  going  to  load 
your  truck."  . 


No.  6.   "Turn    to    the    right    without 
hitting  those  stakes." 

When  the  candidate  passes 
stake  "A,"  say 

"  Drive  up  to  post  No.  7  and 
stop  with. your  step  next  to  the 
post." 


From  Post  6  to  Post  7 

18.  Hits  stajte  at  "A." 

19.  Takes  one  backing  to  clear  "A." 

20.  First  speed  from  post  6  to  7. 

21.  Stops  with  front  step  directly  in- 
front  of  post  7. 

22.  Truck  rolls  down  hill  more  than 
one  foot. 


No.  7.  "Drive  to  end  of  street 
marked  by  post  No.  8  and 
turn  around.  Do  not  back 
any  more  than  necessary." 
When  candidate  has  turned 
around,  say:  "  Drive  down  to 
the  right  side  of  post  No.  i." 


From  Post  7  to  Post  i. 

23.  Truck  rolls  down  hill  more  than 
one  foot  when  starting. 

24.  Emergency  brake  on  when  driving 
up  hill. 

25.  Jerky  driving. 

26.  More  than  one  backing  in  turn. 

27.  Turns  further  than  10  feet  from 
post  8. 

28.  Wheels  touch  curb. 

29.  Races  engine  or  grinds  gears  on 
turn. 

30.  Turns  steering  wheel  more  than 
5  turn  when  truck  is  stationary. 

Note :  Add  i  error  each  time  the 
candidate  stalls  the  engine,  at 
any  part  of  the  course  after  pre- 
liminary practice. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  PERFORMANCE  TEST 

The  main  criticism  of  the  performance  test  method  as  used 
in  the  army  concerns  itself  with    the   difficulty  of  securing  a 


A    PERFORMANCE    TEST  333 

single  task  which  is  sufficiently  typical  to  be  taken  as  indicative 
of  general  trade  ability.  The  restrictions  of  time  imposed  by 
army  conditions  prevented  the  examination  from  covering  a 
large  number  of  trade  operations.  There  is,  however,  no  reason 
why  the  tests  when  applied  in  industry  could  not  be  much  more 
lengthy  than  those  used  in  the  army.  A  day,  or  even  two  days, 
spent  in  systematic  examination  of  the  abilities  of  a  skilled 
tradesman  would  be  well  spent.  The  general  method  of  assign- 
ing standardized,  typical  jobs  of  various  degrees  of  difficulty 
is  infinitely  superior  to  the  haphazard  methods  which  are  now 
commonly  used. 

There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  for  rapid  examination 
by  unskilled,  examiners,*  the  oral  or  picture  method,  except  for 
a  few  special  occupations,  is  the  more  advantageous,  as  the 
initial  selecting  agency.  Where  further  information  is  required, 
which  the  oral  test  does  not  furnish,  the  performance  test  may 
well  be  employed.  It  is  'also  an  indispensable  instrument,  (i) 
where  there  is  great  language  difficulty;  (2)  where  there  is  fear 
that  previous  coaching  has  taken  place;  (3)  where  the  oral 
method  has  been  rendered  void  because  the  trade  information 
has  been  obtained  in  a  purely  theoretical  way.  In  both  the 
oral  and  picture  methods  it  cannot  be  too  clearly  realized  that 
manual  skill  is  only  indirectly  measured;  the  success  of  the 
rating  depends  on  the  close  correlation  between  degree  of 
information  and  amount  of  skill.  In  the  performance  test  no 
such  assumption  is  ma.de.  The  latter  form  of  test,  if  of  a  wide 
enough  order,  measures  both  elements  of  trade  ability,  namely, 
technical  information  and  manual  dexterity.  The  performance 
test  is  merely  a  more  refined  and  inclusive  measuring  device. 

It  is  impossible,  without  considering  the  reasons  for  an  exami- 

• 

*The  examiners  for  performance  tests  underwent  specific  training  for  their 
work. 


334  TRADE    TESTS 

nation,  that  is,  without  a  consideration  of  the  importance  of 
the  decision  to  be  made  as  a  result  of  the  test,  to  weigh  the 
respective  merits  of  the  oral  and  performance  method.  Where, 
however,  a  thorough  knowledge  is  required,  not  only  of  the 
strong  points  of  the  workman,  but  also  of  his  weaknesses  in 
the  trade,  a  series  of  performance  tests  has  undoubtedly  a 
great  field  of  usefulness,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  more 
difficult  to  construct  and  more  expensive  to  administer.  Some 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  performance  test  method  can  be  used, 
not  primarily  for  selecting,  but  rather  for  training  workmen, 
will  be  discussed  in  a  later  chapter. 


SECTION  V 
A  WRITTEN   GROUP  TRADE  TEST 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  WRITTEN   GROUP   TRADE   TEST   METHOD 

THE  Army  Trade  Test  Division  was,  on  a  priori  grounds, 
extremely  skeptical  of  written  trade  examinations.  For  this 
reason,  in  the  theoretical  examination,  oral  tests  alone  were 
used.  Such  tests  demand  an  individual  examination;  an  ex- 
aminer must  give  the  whole  of  his  attention  to  a  single  man 
throughout  the  entire  test.  When  there  is  no  pressure  of  time, 
such  a  procedure  is  advantageous,  but  when  time  is  limited, 
there  are  many  advantages  in  being  able  to  give  group  exami- 
nations. Among  these  advantages  are:  (i)  conservation  of 
examiner's  time;  (2)  reduction  of  scoring  time  and  increase  of 
scoring  accuracy  through  the  use  of  stencils,  etc.;  (3)  elimina- 
tion of  subjective  judgments;  (4)  the  possibility  of  rapidly 
eliminating  the  trade  "bluffer,"  leaving  only  those  who  show 
evidence  of  some  knowledge  for  further  consideration  or  ex- 
amination by  means  of  oral,  performance,  or  picture  tests. 

In  connection  with  the  work  of  this  division,  it  was  possible 
before  the  signing  of  the  armistice  to  experiment  with  a  group 
examination  in  only  one  trade.  It  is.  therefore,  premature  to 
make  any  estimate  of  the  group  test,  but  there  is  little  doubt 
that  great  possibilities  lie  ahead  of  the  general  method.  The 
examination  was  constructed  on  the  well-known  multiple-choice 
plan,  i.e.,  to  each  question  asked  four  answers  are  appended, 
and  the  examinee  is  instructed  to  underline  the  correct 
answer. 


338  TRADE    TESTS 


I/ 


Assembly  oj  Questions 

In  conference  with  expert  tradesmen,  sixty-two  questions 
were  prepared,  each  question  having  four  possible  answers,  of 
which  one  was  correct.  Nearly  all  the  questions  of  the  army 
oral  test  for  bricklayers  were  adapted  to  this  form  of  exami- 
nation, the  remainder  being  secured  from  other  sources.  Trade 
terms  were  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  four  answers  from 
which  the  choice  was  to  be  made,  on  the  supposition  that  a 
person  might  be  able  to  recognize  a  trade  term  from  among  a 
number  of  terms  not  applicable  to  the  trade  and  yet  have  no 
real  knowledge  of  its  significance.  A  part  of  this  test  is  here 
reproduced  by  the  courtesy  of  the  Editor  of  the  Journal  of 
Applied  Psychology,  from  an  article  written  by  one  of  the 
authors  with  Mr.  H.  A.  Toops. 

BRICKLAYERS'   TEST1 

Directions : 

In  the  sentences  below,  there  are  four  choices  for  a  correct  sen- 
tence. Only  one  of  the  four  choices  is  correct.  Draw  a  line  under 
the  one  choice  which  makes  the  best  sentence.  If  you  are  not 
sure,  guess;  an  omitted  answer  will  count  as  a  wrong  answer  in 
determining  your  score.  The  first  two  sentences,  A  and  B,  are 
answered  correctly  as  a  sample  for  you.  Read  them  carefully; 
then  go  on  to  question  i,  question  2,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the 
list. 

Samples : 

A.  A  half  of  a  brick  is  called  a:  chunk,  block,  heel,  bat. 

B.  Fire-bricks  are  laid  in:   concrete,  cement,  fire-clay,  mortar. 
Questions : 

1.  The  top  course  of  stone  on  a  wall  is  called:  coping,  bond-stone, 
clip-course,  capstone. 

2.  A  brick  set  on  end  is  called:  upright,  soldier,  rowlock,  stud. 

1  These  eighteen  questions  are  samples  of  the  original  set  of  sixty-two 
which  constituted  the  examination. 


WRITTEN    GROUP   TRADE    TEST          339 

3.  Before  plumbing  up  a  corner,  you  should  lay:    3-courses,  6- 
courses,  9-courses,  i2-courses. 

4.  A  brick  that  is  set  on  the  narrow  edge  is  called:  stretcher,  oar- 
lock, rowlock,  header. 

5.  In  coming  to  a  height,  if  there  is  a  course  of  brick  difference  in 
the  level,  you  would  call  it  a:  haunch,  filler,  line- level,  hog. 

6.  Filling-in  the  space  between  a  front  and  back  course  of  brick 
is  called:   slushing-up,  tempering,  tuck-pointing,  plastering. 

7.  Bricks  laid  across  the  wall  reaching  to  the  face  are  called: 
stretchers,  headers,  layers,  fillers. 

8.  A  fire  stop  around  a  flue  is  formed  by  a  coping,  skew-back, 
corbie,  indent. 

9.  If  you  have  no  metal  ties,  in  plain  bond  work,  the  front  work 
of  a  building  is  tied-in  with:    king-course,  clip-course,  projec- 
tion course,  belt. 

10.  In  backing  a  4-inch  ashlar  stone  wall,  you  would  tie  it  with: 
tie-joint,  binder,  brace,  anchor. 

11.  A  brick  cut  in  half  lengthwise  is  called:  filler,  soap,  bat,  chunk. 

12.  To  keep  the  line  level  in  the  middle  of  a  long  wall  you  use: 
level,  plumb-line,  square,  trigger. 

13.  In  cutting  a  brick  you  would  use  a:  chisel-bar,  striker,  brick-set, 
cutter. 

14.  The  distance  above  the  frame  for  a  lintel  should 'be:   £  inch, 
£  inch,  i  inch,  i|  inches.  ,,; ;« 

15.  An  ordinary  stone  sill  should  be  bedded  on  the:   front,  back, 
solid,  two  ends. 

16.  To  locate  a  building  you  use:    water-level,  sighter,  transit, 
line-level. 

17.  A  skutch  is  used  in  cutting:   cement,  glazed-brick,  stone,  fire- 
brick. 

18.  Another  name  for  a  blind  header  course  is:    belt-course,  clip- 
course,  dental- course,  hidden-course. 

The  answers  to  the  above  questions  with  the  percentages  of  experts 
passing  each  are  as  follows: 

1.  Coping  —  98%.  4.   Rowlock  —  100%. 

2.  Soldier  — 98%.  5.   Hog  — 100%. 

3.  3-courses  —  88  %.  6.   Slushing-up  —  98%. 


340  TRADE    TESTS 

7.  Headers— 98%.  13.  Brick-set  —  100%. 

8.  Corbie  — 85%.  14-  j-inch  — 88%. 

9.  Clip-course  —  100  %.  15.  Two-ends  —  93  %. 

10.  Anchor  —  85  %.  16.  Transit  —  88  %. 

11.  Soap  — 85%.  17.  Fire-brick  —  100  %. 

12.  Trigger  —  93  %.  18.  Clip-course  —  93  %. 


r/*e  Subjects  of  the  Experiment 

The  examination  was  given  without  time  limit  to  101  persons, 
distributed  as  follows:  35  novices  without  trade  experience, 
4  apprentices,  .and  62  trade  union  members.  Of  the  novices, 
29  were  soldiers  in  an  army  training  school,  being  instructed  in 
other  trades  at  the  time,  but  inexperienced  in  the  bricklayers' 
trade.  These  men  were  mechanically  inclined,  and  above 
average  in  intelligence  and  education.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  the  questions  were  subjected  to  much  more  intelligent 
guessing  than  ordinary  conditions  of  their  application  would 
furnish.  Of  the  other  six  novices,  3  were  stenographers  who 
had  had  several  days'  experience,  immediately  preceding  this 
test,  in  taking  and  transcribing  stenographic  notes  relating  to 
the  general  subject  of  bricklaying.  The  other  3  novices  were 
clerical  workers.  These  subjects  were  well  informed  concern- 
ing the  technique  employed  in  assembling  such  tests,  and  used 
various  methods  of  "suggestion,  inspection,  and  elimination" 
in  efforts  to  make  as  high  scores  as  possible. 

Owing  to  the  great  scarcity  of  apprentices,  only  four  could 
be  examined.  The  length  of  their  trade  experience  ranged  from 
one  month  to  five  years.  In  view  of  experience  and  perform- 
ance in  the  army  oral  test,  the  lowest  apprentice  can  be  con- 
sidered little  better  than  novice,  while  the  best  apprentice 
perhaps  deserves  to  be  ranked  as  a  low  journeyman. 

The  tradesmen,  being  all  members  of  the  union,  more  than 


WRITTEN    GROUP   TRADE    TEST          341 

fulfilled  the  minimum  entrance  requirements  in  point  of  years 
of  trade  experience  and  skill.  On  the  basis  of  their  own  written 
statements  in  regard  to  years  of  trade  experience,  type  of  work, 
and  foremanship  ability,  these  62  men  were  divided  by  the 
authors  into  the  two  following  groups:  (a)  36  journeymen 
(hereafter  called  J.)  or  men  of  medium  amount  of  skill  and 
knowledge;  (b)  26  experts  (hereafter  called  E.),  men  of  superior 
skill,  knowledge  and  foremanship  ability.  This  rather  arbitrary 
classification  was  made  in  an  effort  to  determine  from  the  re- 
sults of  the  examination  whether  a  set  of  questions  could  be  so 
selected  as  to  differentiate  not  only  nontradesmen  from  trades- 
men, and  apprentices  from  skilled  men,  but  also  journeymen 
from  journeymen  experts,  so  divided. 

PRESENTATION  OF  RESULTS 

Four  points  were  allowed  for  each  correct  answer;  there  were 
no  partial  credits.  Four  points  were  selected  as  an  arbitrary 
value  because  of  army  custom.  A  graph  for  each  question  was 
drawn,  showing  the  average  score  made  by  novices,  apprentices, 
journeymen  and  experts.  Samples  of  such  graphs  are  shown 
in  Fig.  i.  Since  little  was  known  as  to  the  most  desirable  com- 
bination of  questions  to  make  up  the  best  set  for  an  examina- 
tion, five  methods  of  combining  varying  numbers  of  questions 
were  tried;  only  one  of  these  methods  is  here  described,  that 
in  which  the  entire  set  of  62  questions  is  used. 

The  distribution  of  scores  is  given  in  the  Graph.  By  inspec- 
tion, arbitrary  lines  of  demarcation  of  N-A,  and  A-J  may  be 
made,  corresponding  to  the  number  of  questions  correct  as 
follows: 

Novice  score,  0-30 

Apprentice  score,          31-42 

Skilled  tradesmen,        43-62 


342 


TRADE   TESTS 


\ 


3  traight  line  -  Te/eof. 


ZQ-HqhJ-Z. 
13-  Negative  J-L 


I 

75 
•k 


* 

SO 

I 


25 

O 


F/g.l.  Some  Gnjohs  cf  Questions. 


Each  a  - 1  person. 
B  Army  Nor  ices- 2.9 


2S         50         ~SS 


mWomert  flovico-  6 
es-  4 


D  Experts  —  26 
Total-  101 


ZO       4O        Ho       SO       100     Kb      J40      UO     ISO      tOO  ^OO      140   •& 

Mo  Vices.  \  Apprentices.}  SKillffc/  Tradesmen.  j£B 


SO         fS         60 


GfaphX.  Distribution  ofScores)tyTrade  Classes.  Method 'X. 


WRITTEN    GROUP    TRADE    TEST          343 

It  can  be  seen  at  once  that  the  test  does  not  differentiate  be- 
tween the  journeyman  and  expert  classes.  Either  the  division 
into  these  two  classes  by  judgments  based  on  the  written  state- 
ments of  the  men  has  nothing  to  do  with  men's  ability  to  answer 
this  form  of  question,  or  the  test  as  given  is  not  sufficiently  dim- 
cult  to  differentiate  among  skilled  tradesmen.  The  homogeneity 
of  the  skilled  tradesmen  class  as  to  scores  can  be  easily  seen 
from  the  Graph,  where  the  expert  distribution  has  been  added 
to  the  journeyman  distribution  by  means  of  the  dotted  squares. 

With  the  two  arbitrary  critical  lines  just  mentioned,  only 
three  skilled  union  men  out  of  62,  or  less  than  5  per  cent,  are 
displaced  out  of  this  larger  class  into  the  apprentice  class.  We 
can  assume  that  all  union  men  have  had  four  years'  trade  experi- 
ence and  possess  a  certain  minimum  requirement  of  ability. 
The  apprentice  with  only  one  month's  experience  is  here  rated 
with  the  novices,  as  is  only  fair  under  the  conditions.  His 
guessing  ability  is  as  poor  as  the  poorest  novice,  from  which 
we  can  assume  that  he  has  learned  next  to  no  trade  terms  in 
one  month  of  trade  experience.  Our  own  judgment  is  to  the 
effect  that  intelligence  is  a  better  single  measure  of  trade  skill 
than  are  years  of  trade  experience,  after  a  certain  minimum 
time  for  learning  has  elapsed. 

By  chance  alone,  the  poorest  novice  should  theoretically  be 
able  to  answer  15  of  the  62  questions  correctly  (one  out  of  every 
four).  Here,  only  two  novices  fail  to  come  up  to  this  standard, 
and  they  fail  by  only  a  single  question  each,  both  answering 
14  questions  correctly.  The  average  novice  answers  a  little 
better  than  19  questions. 

If  the  object  is  merely  to  separate  skilled  tradesmen  from 
the  apprentices,  or  the  tradesmen  of  experience  from  the  "trade 
bluffers,"  this  type  of  examination  offers  great  promise,  but 
much  more  work  will  have  to  be  done  to  decide  whether  it  has  a 
place  in  the  employment  machinery. 


SECTION  VI 

THE   PLACE  OF  THE  TRADE  TEST  IN 
INDUSTRY 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE    ANALOGY    BETWEEN    THE    ARMY    AND 
THE  INDUSTRIAL  EMPLOYMENT  PROBLEM 

THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  TRADE  TEST  IN  THE  MECHANISM 
OF  PLACEMENT  IN  THE  ARMY 

THE  trade  test  methods  which  have  been  described  were 
devised  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  army  problem.  The 
trade  tests  themselves  were  constructed  to  fit  into  a  personnel 
system  peculiar  to  the  army.  Nothing  is  more  certain  than  the 
fact  that  the  tests  and  methods  will  have  to  be  modified  to  meet 
the  varying  conditions  under  which  they  will  be  employed  in 
industry.  To  apply  the  army  tests  directly  in  industry  would 
be  to  court^disaster,  unless  it  happens  that  the  industrial  situa- 
tion presents  the  same  type  of  problem  as  that  which  was  faced 
in  the  army.  The  experimental  work  undertaken  by  the  Com- 
mittee on  Classification  of  Personnel  is 'much  more  valuable  on 
account  of  the  general  methods,  the  validity  of  which  it  has 
established,  than  on  account  of  any  specific  instruments  of 
measurement  which  it  has  actually  evolved.  As  the  work  pro- 
gressed from  month  to  month,  the  general  theory  and  nature 
of  the  examination  became  more  clearly  formulated,  but  in  only 
a  few  cases  was  it  possible  to  return  to  the  tests  which  had 
already  been  constructed  in  order  to  modify  them  to  meet  hi 
a  more  satisfactory  manner  the  principles  which  had  been 
evolved. 

The  improvement  in  the  form  of  oral  examination  employed 

347 


348  TRADE    TESTS 

is  well  illustrated  by  the  development  of  the  general  carpenter 
interview  as  it  passed  from  its  first  form  in  the  "Aids  to  In- 
terviewers" to  the  trade  test  form  in  September,  1918.  Both 
these  tests  are  here  reproduced  as  an  illustration  of  progress. 


STANDARD 

CARPENTER 

(GENERAL) 
Page  1 

1:A 

Q- 

(a)  State  names  of  planes 
each. 

commonly  used  and  (b)  purpose  of 

A. 

(a)  (i)  Jack,  (2)  fore,  (3)  smoothing,  (4)  block,  (b)  (i)  The  jack 
plane  is  for  removing  surplus  wood  and  (2)  to  prepare  material 
for  the  fore  and  smoothing  planes,     (c)   (i)  The  fore  plane  to 
"joint  up"  the  material,  (2)  to  straighten  edges  of   material 
so  as  to  obtain  a  perfectly  tight   joint,   (3)  to  take  material 
"out  of  wind."     (d)   (i)   Smoothing  plane  is  chiefly  used  for 
finishing,  (2)   to  give  material  a  smooth  surface,  (3)  and  pre- 
pare it  for  paint  or  varnish,     (e)   (i)  Block  plane  is  used  for 
small  work  and  (2)   for  end  planing. 

2:  A 

Q. 

What  other  ordinary  tools  does  a  carpenter  need  in  addition  to 
saws  and  planes? 

A. 

(i)  Hammer,    (2)  screw  driver,   (3)  chisel,   (4)  brace,   (5)  auger 
bits,    (6)  steel   square,    (7)  tri-square,   (8)  bevel,    (9)  marking 
gauge,  (10)  compass,  (it)  oil  stone,  (12)  oil  can. 

3:A 

0. 

What  is  meant  by  taking  a 

piece  of  lumber  "  out  of  wind  "  ? 

A. 

(i)  Making  the  surface  a  true  plane,  or  (2)  a  straight  line. 

1:J 

Q. 

What  is  a  square  mitre  joint? 

A. 

(i)  Joining  two  pieces  together,  (2)  first  cutting  each  piece  on 
an  angle  of  forty-five  degrees,   (3)  when  joined  together  the 
two  pieces  form  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees. 

2:J 

Q. 

(a)  Which  edge  should  be  used  for  the  top  in  setting  a  floor  joist? 
(b)  Why? 

A. 

(a)  The  crown,    (b)  Because  the  joist  has  a  tendency  to  sag  from 
its  own  weight  —  and  should  have  a  little  crown  to  overcome 
this  and  the  added  weight  of  the  floor. 

ARMY    AND   INDUSTRIAL   PROBLEM     349 


STANDARD                                ^ZT 

Page  1 

3:J 

Q- 

(a)  What  is  a  good  height  for  a  step  riser  and  (b)  width  for  the 
tread? 

A. 

(a)  Six  inches,     (b)  Twelve  inches. 

4:J 

Q. 

What  is  the  usual  size  of  a  "  two  by  four  "  after  it  has  been 
'  '  dressed  and  jointed  "  ? 

A 

One  and  three-quarter  inches  by  three  and  three-quarter  inches. 

1:JE 

Q. 

What  is  meant  by  quarter-sawed  lumber? 

A. 

(i)  The  original  log  is  first  cut  into  quarters  and  (2)  each  quarter 
into  slabs,  (3)  the  saw  out  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  log 
on  each  cut,  or  (4)  at  right  angles  to  the  medullary  rays. 

2:JE 

Q. 

How  many  shingles  will  be  required  to  cover  one  hundred  square 
feet,  if  laid  four  inches  to  the  weather? 

A. 

Four  inches  by  four  inches  equal  sixteen  square  inches,  or  one- 
ninth  of  a  square  foot,  which  each  shingle  will  cover  to  the 
weather,  therefore:  (i)  one  square  foot  will  require  nine 
shingles.  (2)  One  hundred  square  feet  will  require  nine  hun- 
dred shingles. 

3:JE 

Q. 

Give  the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  frame  of  a  simple  frame 
house. 

A. 

(i)  Sill,  (2)  plate,  (3)  corner  posts,  (4)  studding,  (5)  floor 
beams,  (6)  ribbon  strip,  (7)  girth,  (8)  tie  beams,  (9)  rafter, 
(10)  collar  beams. 

4:JE 

Q. 

(a)  Is  it  necessary  to  know  the  location  of  door  hardware  in  setting 
door?  (b)  Why? 

A. 

(a)  Yes.     (b)  To  block  solidly  back  of  butts  and  lock  strike. 

5:JE 

Q. 

How  many  lineal  feet  of  joists  of  ordinary  dimensions  can  two 
men  place  on  the  different  floors  in  a  five-story  brick  building, 
including  anchoring  and  leveling,  in  eight  hours? 

A. 

(i)  First,  second  and  third  floors,  four  hundred  feet,  (2)  fourth 
floor,  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  (3)  fifth  floor,  two  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet. 

350  TRADE    TESTS 

TRADE  TEST 
CARPENTER.  —  General 

ORAL 

COMMITTEE  ON  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PERSONNEL 
IN  THE  ARMY 

Trade  Test  Division 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  Adjutant  General 

QUESTION   1 
Q.  What  are  the  timbers  called  on  which  the  flooring  rests  in  a  frame 

building? 
A.    Joists  (beams).  Score  4 

QUESTION   2 
Q.  What  do  you  do  to  a  nail  after  it  has  been  driven  on  varnished 

work? 
A.    Set.  Score  4 

QUESTION  3 

Q.  What  is  the  part  of  the  window  frame  called  which  projects  be- 
yond the  wall  at  the  bottom? 
A.    Sill.  Score  4 

QUESTION   4 
Q.  What  do  you  call  the  cross  bracing  which  is  put  between  floor 

beams? 
A.    Bridging.  Score  4 

QUESTION   5 
Q.  What  plane  do  you  use  to  plane  the  end  of  a  small  board  across 

the  grain? 
A.    Block  (butt).  Score  4 

QUESTION  6 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  timber  which  goes  on  top  of  the  studding? 

A.    Plate.  Score  4 

QUESTION   7 

Q.  What  does  the  number  of  a  saw  near  the  handle  mean? 

A.    Number  of  teeth  to  the  inch.  Score  4 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL   PROBLEM     351 

QUESTION   8 

Q.   What  figures  on  the  square  would  you  use  to  make  a  square-miter 

joint? 

A.    Equal  figures.  Score  4 

Note:  Any  two  specific  equal  figures  such  6-6,  9-9,  10-10,  12-12 
accepted. 

QUESTION  9 

Q.   How  are  the  ends  of  the  floor  joists  cut  on  a  brick  building? 
A.    (i)  Beveled  (angled)  (diagonally)  (mitered).  Score  4 

(2)  Fire  cut.  Score  4 

QUESTION    10 

Q.   What  is  the  name  of  the  largest  plane  commonly  used? 

A.    Joint  (joiner)  (jointer)  (fore).  Score  4 

QUESTION   11 

Q.   What  method  of  nailing  is  used  in  putting  down  a  hard- wood 

floor? 
A.    Toe  (tongue)  (blind)  (secret).  Score  4 

QUESTION   12 

Q.   What  are  two  ways  of  joining  base  boards  in  the  corner  of  a 

room? 

A.    Butt  (square). 
Dado. 
Miter. 

Cope.  Any  two,  Score  4 

QUESTION   13 

Q.   What  do  you  call  a  rafter  which  runs  from  an  outside  corner  of 
the  building  to  the  ridge  at  an  angle  other  than  90  degrees? 
A.    Hip.  Score  4 

QUESTION   14 

Q.  What  are  two  ways  of  cutting-in  mold  faced  door  stops? 

A.    (i)  a.   Miter.  Score  4 

b.    Cope. 
Note:  Both  required.    No  partial  credits. 


352  TRADE    TESTS 

QUESTION   15 

Q.  What  do  you  call  the  end  post  used  to  support  stair  rails? 
A.   Newel.  Score  4 

QUESTION   16 

Q.   What  kind  of  hinges  are  used  in  hanging  an  inside  door? 
A.    Butt.  Score  4 

QUESTION   17 

Q.   What  do  you  call  planing  off  the  corner  of  a  heavy  timber? 

A.    Chamfer.  Score  4 

QUESTION   18 

Q.   What  attachment  is  used  to  keep  a  bit  from  going  beyond  a  given 

depth? 

A.    Gauge  (stop).  Score  4 

QUESTION   19 

Q.   What  do  you  call  the  method  of  marking  a  board  to  fit  into  an 

irregular  space? 

A.    Scribe.  Score  4 

QUESTION   20 

Q.   What  figures  do  you  use  on  the  square  for  laying  out  the  top 
and  bottom  cuts  on  a  hip  rafter  for  a  one-to-one  or  half  pitch 
roof? 
A.    12  and  17.  Score  4 

RATING   THE   CANDIDATE 
Score  Rating 

19  and  below N 

20  and  21 A  — 

22  to  50  inclusive A 

51  and  52 A  + 

53  and  54 J  - 

55  to  68  inclusive J 

69  and  70 J  + 

71  and  above E 

There  is  no  E  —  or  E  -f  rating. 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM     353 

A  comparison  of  the  two  will  show,  better  than  any  words  can 
describe,  the  evolution  of  the  single-answer  question  and  the 
approach  to  the  ideal  of  objective  rating. 

It  is  probably  true  to  say  that  were  the  compilation  of  tests 
to  be  made  afresh,  starting  with  the  knowledge  that  is  now 
possessed,  not  a  single  test  would  remain  in  its  present  form, 
although  in  the  later  tests,  the  alteration  would  not  be  con- 
siderable. After  the  first  few  months  of  work  little  change  was 
made  in  the  general  plan  of  construction,  but  technique  in 
carrying  out  this  plan  improved  greatly  and  was  steadily  ad- 
vancing when  the  work  of  compilation  ceased  with  the  signing 
of  the  armistice. 

To  get  a  true  perspective  of  the  trade  test  instrument,  it  is 
necessary  to  consider  the  general  scheme  of  which  it  furnished 
an  essential  part.  While  only  the  roughest  outline  can  be  given 
of  the  general  army  method,  even  this  will  be  of  great  service 
as  an  introduction  to  the  consideration  of  the  industrial  applica- 
tions of  trade  tests.  It  is  obvious  that  any  method  of  determin- 
ing trade  qualifications  is  meaningless  unless  coincident  with 
it  there  is  adequate  information  concerning  trade  needs.  Strictly 
speaking,  before  a  trade  test  covering  any  particular  occupation 
can  be  constructed,  it  is  necessary  to  know  in  some  considerable 
detail  the  precise  duties  and  skill  demanded  by  the  occupation. 

One  of  the  first  personnel  problems  which  had  to  be  faced 
centered  around  the  trade  requirements  of  the  army.  To  most 
of  those  who  were  unacquainted  with  modern  methods  of  war- 
fare it  was  a  source  of  perpetual  wonder  to  learn  how  large  a 
number  of  trades  were  required  within  the  limits  of  the  army 
proper.  However  remote  might  be  the  occupation,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  somewhere  in  the  army  was  a  place  where,  under 
certain  conditions,  that  occupation  might  profitably  be  followed. 
Each  platoon,  company,  regiment  or  other  unit,  whether  infan- 


354  TRADE  TESTS 

try,  cavalry,  engineers,  medical,  etc.,  made  its  own  particular 
demands  for  skilled  workmen.  The  determination  of  the  exact 
nature  of  these  demands  led  to  the  compilation  of  Tables  of 
Occupational  Needs  of  Personnel  Specifications.  These  were 
prepared  in  order  to  provide  a  definite  and  organized  method  of 
placing  the  supply  of  specialists  in  organizations  and  to  secure 
their  equable  distribution  throughout  the  army. 

They  served  the  double  purpose  of  showing  the  organization 
commander  how  best  to  utilize  the  trade  ability  at  his  disposal, 
and  in  addition  guided  him  in  the  further  selection  of  men. 
Below  is  given  an  illustration  of  such  a  table  of  organization  of 
a  Rifle  Company  (Infantry  Regiment). 

It  was  while  the  Tables  of  Occupational  Needs  for  an  Infantry 
Division  were  being  revised  that  the  fact  was  driven  home  with 
so  much  emphasis  it  could  no  longer  be  neglected  that  men  could 
not  be  classified  by  occupations  alone;  and  that  by  the  very 
nature  of  these  tables,  which  specified  an  occupationalist  for  a 
duty  which  had  at  best  only  a  few  essentials  of  a  vocation  in  it, 
the  tables  were  becoming  too  rich  in  occupational  specialists. 
In  consequence  the  necessity  arose  for  taking  into  consideration 
qualifications  other  than  occupational  in  order  properly  to  make 
the  best  utilization  of  the  personnel  coming  into  the  Army. 
Work  was  then  commenced  upon  real  personnel  specifications 
which  would  take  into  account  other  factors  upon  which  a  man's 
assignment  should  be  based,  such  as  his  physical,  educational, 
intellectual,  and  leadership  qualifications.  Furthermore,  in 
order  to  keep  the  relation  between  the  qualifications  a  man 
possesses  and  the  duties  he  performs  foremost  in  the  minds  of 
those  who  are  makng  the  initial  and  subsequent  assignments 
of  men  to  Army  units,  the  personnel  specifications  set  forth  in 
concise  but  comprehensive  style  the  duties  of  each  of  the  Army 
grades  for  which  it  describes  the  qualifications. 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM     355 


OCCUPATIONAL  NEEDS 


RIFLE   COMPANY 

INFANTRY  REGIMENT 


Table  of  organization  i 

Table  of  corresponding  civilian  occupations 

Number 

Army  title 

Journey- 

Appren- 

Occupation and  symbol 

man 

tice 

(Green) 

(Orange) 

i   ist  Sergeant 

i  Mess  Sergeant 

I 

Caterer  (40  ca) 

i   Supply  Sergeant 

I 

Merchant         or        Stock- 

12  Sergeants 
4  Asst.  to  Platoon  Commanders 

keeper  (42  or  1  8  s) 

4  Riflemen 

4  Automatic  Riflemen 

33  Corporals 

i  Company  Clerk 

I 

Clerical        Worker        and 

8  Automatic  Riflemen 

Typist  (38  g  and  39  t) 

8  Bombers 

8  Rifle  Grenadiers 

8  Riflemen 

4  Cooks 

4 

Cooks;  desirable    to    have 

one     baker     and     one 

with       experience       as 

meat  cutter  (40  c,  40  b, 

and  41  b) 

4  Mechanics 

i 

i 

I 

Carpenter  (8  g) 
Gunsmith       (n  g);        or 

General  Mechanic  (6  me) 

2 

All       around      mechanics 

(6  me) 

2  Buglers 

2 

Buglers  (44  bu,  or  44  b, 

cornetist)         *'. 

64  Privates,  ist  Class 

4    Agents    and    Signal- 
men 

2 

Telegraph  Operators  (31  t) 

2 

Telephone  men  (33  t) 

16  Automatic-Rifle 

LESS  ESSENTIAL  GROUP: 

Gunners 

i 

I 

Barber  (45) 

128  Privates 

I 

Butcher  (41  b) 

16  Runners 

2 

Carpenters  (8  g) 

i 

I 

Clerical  workers  (38  g) 

i 

4 

Interpreters,    French    (52; 

i   skilled  for  co.   hqrs., 

and  i  partly  skilled  for 

each  platoon) 

i 

I 

Tailors  (48  b,  t) 

2 

Typists  (30  t) 

12 

21 

33  Occupational  specialists 

45  Others,     leadership 

material 

172  Not  specified 

2^0  Total  enlisted 

250  Total  enlisted 

356  TRADE    TESTS 

VALUE  OF  PERSONNEL  SPECIFICATIONS 

The  immediate  value  of  personnel  specifications  is  four-fold : 
(i)  The  Army  is  given  the  benefit  of  civilian  experience  gained 
at  the  soldier's  expense;  (2)  the  need  for  Army  schools  to  de- 
velop specialists  out  of  raw  material  is  minimized;  (3)  the 
training  period  of  units  is  shortened  inasmuch  as  only  mili- 
tary instruction  is  necessary  and  not  both  military  and  occupa- 
tional instruction;  and  (4)  the  man  is  much  more  likely  to  be 
contented  because  of  being  continued  at  work  he  enjoys. 

The  most  important  service  which  these  personnel  specifica- 
tions rendered  was  that  it  enabled  a  central  planning  board  to 
determine  how  specialists  should  be  used,  and  how  the  supply  of 
skilled  men  should  be  husbanded,  particularly  in  cases  where 
the  demand  far  exceeded  the  supply.  The  tables  furnished  the 
requisite  information,  not  only  of  what  trades  were  useful  to 
the  army,  but  just  where  and  hi  what  number  tradesmen  of 
varied  degrees  of  ability  could  be  used. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  table  on  page  355  the  occupational 
needs  of  each  unit  were  expressed  in  the  statement  that  a  certain 
number  of  men  in  various  occupations  were  required.  These 
occupations  were  given  the  army  title,  which  may,  or  may  not, 
conform  to  that  usually  employed  in  civil  life.  It  soon  became 
apparent  that  there  was  urgent  need  for  precise  definition  of  the 
duties  which  the  various  types  of  army  tradesmen  were  expected 
to  fulfill.  This  need  was  met  in  a  small  degree  by  appending  in- 
formation in  the  Tables  of  Occupational  Needs,  regarding  the 
general  duties  of  the  various  occupations,  but  the  most  vital 
step  towards  precision  in  the  specification  of  personnel  require- 
ments was  taken  when  the  volume  of  "Trade  Specifications" 
was  published,  containing  statements  of  the  duties  and  specifica- 
tions in  each  of  the  714  civilian  trades  and  occupations  which 


ARMY    AND   INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM     357 

B 

A>fEK  T'f" K01U31NG  MACHIXK  OIM :n.\TOK 


1.    Operation  of  standard  types  and  various  kinds  and  sizes  of  forcing  ma 
chines,  such  as  bulldoze,  and  hydraulic  presses  on  general  work.  * 


QUALIFICATIONS 

2.    Should  have  thorough  knowledge  of  rivet  and  bolt 
screw,  toggle  and  hydraulic  presses  for  heading 
all  classes  of  press  forgings  of  various  materials. 

Should  have  a  practical  knowledge  of  coal,  gas,  and  oil  types  of  force 
furnace,  and  the  proper  heating  of  various  material  for  forcings 

Must  be  able  to  set  and  adjust  dies  and  maintain  same  and  be  able 
to  turn  out  uniformly  dimensioned  product.  . 


SUBSTITUTE  OCCUPATIONS 

3.  Drop  forge  operator,  press  operator,  heavy  forge  blacksmith,  blacksmith. 


53 


HEAT  THKATEU 


DUTIES 

1.  Heat  treatment  in  general  of  steel  forgings.  finished  part*  and  eastings. 


QUALIFICATIONS 

2.  Must  be  thoroughly  experienced  in  the  heating  and  oil  treatment  of 
various  grades  of  steel   for  annealing  or  toughening  for  any  kind  of 
work.     MuFt   be  capable   of  annealing,  quenching  and  drawing  of  all 
kinds  of  steel  forgings  and  castings,  either  rough  or  after  being  ma- 
chined.    Must  be  capable  of  judging  temperature  by  the  eye,  and  fa- 
miliar with  the  use  of  pyrometers. 

Must  thoroughly  understand  the  construction  and  operation  of  standard 
types  of  coke,  oil,  gas  or  electric  furnace  equipment,  and  quenching 
tanks,  and  have  a  working  knowledge  of  the  metallurgy  of  steel,  at 
least  sufficient  to  know  how  it  should  be  heated,  treated  and  cooled, 
under  instruction  or  by  test. 

Should  have  had  similar  experience  la  forge -shop  of  any  industrial 
plant. - _ 

SUBSTITUTE  OCCUPATIONS 

3.  Annealer.  heater,  forge  heater. 


56 


HORSESIIOCn 


DUTIES ' 

1.    Shoeing  horses  and  males. 


QUALIFICATIONS 

2.  Must  be  a  practical  horseshoer.  capable  of  forging,  shaping  and  punch- 
ing horse  or  mule  shoes  from  standard  stock  or  bar  material.  Capable  of 
removing  shoes,  paring  and  dressing  hoofs,  welding  caulks,  shaping  shoes 
for  correction  of  diseased  or  malformed  feet. 

Should  have  some  veterinary  knowledge,  enabling  him  to  care  for  and 
correct  hoof  troubles. 

Must  be  able  to  handle  and  shoe  unbroken  hones  under  rough  field 
conditions,  and  handle  heavy  horses  and  mules. 

Should  have  some  knowledge  of  blacksmithing  and  be:  able  to  make 
welds  and  do  light  blacksmith  work. 

Experienced  as  commercial  horseshoer  or  as  horseshoer  in  construction 
camp,  or  employee  of  company  having  considerable  stock. 


SUBSTITUTE  OCCUPATIONS 

3.    Farrier,  country  blacksmith,  blacksmith. 


57 


the  army  utilized.    Samples  of  these  specifications  are  shown 
above. 

It  was  the  introduction  of  these  specifications  that  furnished 
a  common  language  and  a  working  basis  of  standard  terminology. 


358  TRADE    TESTS 

The  Table  of  Occupational  Needs  and  Personnel  Specifica- 
tions, together  with  the  Trade  Specifications  and  Index  of  Occu- 
pations, furnished  information  concerning: 

(1)  The  trade  needs  in  each  branch  of  the  army. 

(2)  The  actual  duties  involved  in  the  various  trades. 

This  compilation  of  information  corresponds  to  the  process  of 
job  analysis  in  industry. 

The  only  other  procedure  of  army  placement  which  need  be 
mentioned  as  essential  to  the  understanding  of  the  trade  test 
movement  is  that  involving  the  compilation  of  an  occupational 
history  of  each  recruit.  While  many  other  lines  of  achievement 
were  of  interest,  the  trade  achievement  is  the  only  one  of  im- 
portance in  the  present  discussion. 

Occupational  History.  The  experience  of  the  army  has  been 
that  a  very  reliable  statement  of  what  the  man  has  done  in  an 
occupational  way  can  be  obtained  when  he  is  properly  inter- 
viewed. According  to  personnel  procedure  a  complete  record 
of  just  what  he  had  done  from  the  time  he  left  school  until  he 
entered  the  Army  was  recorded  first  of  all  in  the  form  of  notes 
on  a  pad.  After  the  interviewer  was  satisfied  he  had  a  complete 
statement,  he  determined  what  was  the  man's  main  civilian 
occupation  and  then  filled  in  the  space  on  the  Qualification  Card 
as  to 

(1)  Name  of  main  occupation. 

(2)  Details  of  just  what  he  did  at  that  job. 

(3)  Years  of  experience. 

(4)  The  army  symbol.     For  example,   carpentry    was   sub- 
divided into  22  subdivisions,  i.e.,  block  maker,  pulley,  8  bl; 
boat  carpenter,   8b;    bridge,   timber  carpenter,   8br;    cabinet 
maker,  8cb;  etc. 

(5)  Interviewer's  estimate  of  his  skill  at  the  trade,  expressed 
as  apprentice,  journeyman,  or  expert.     (Skill  less  than  that  of 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM      359 

an  apprentice  was  ignored  as  not  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant 
transferring  a  man  on  that  basis.) 

(6)  Firm  worked  for. 

(7)  Department,  shop  or  branch. 

(8)  Kind  of  business  (the  industry;    e.g.,  shipbuilding,  tex- 
tile, etc.). 

(9)  Address  of  firm. 

(10)  Weekly  wages. 

Items  1-5  and  10  were  recorded  similarly  for  the  2d  best 
and  3d  best  occupations  and  occasionally  the  4th  best. 

The  main  object  of  that  part  of  the  qualification  card  shown 
on  page  360  was  to  elicit  all  possible  information  concerning  the 
trade  ability  of  the  recruit,  with  a  view  to  filling  the  require- 
ments of  the  army  as  detailed  in  the  Tables  of  Occupational 
Needs  and  the  Trade  Specifications.  The  qualification  card 
was  merely  a  means  to  an  end  —  the  correct  placement  and 
correct  follow-up  of  the  recruit.  It  will  be  noticed  that  item 
(5)  in  the  list  above  calls  for  the  interviewer's  estimate  of  the 
trade  skill  of  the  recruit.  This  estimate  must  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  an  apprentice,  journeyman,  or  expert  rating.  Upon 
the  accuracy  of  the  estimate  of  this  skill  depended  the  success 
of  the  whole  scheme  of  trade  placement.  It  was  at  this  point 
in  the  involved  mechanism  that  the  need  for  the  trade  test 
arose.  The  trade  test  is  a  device  which  serves  as  an  accurate 
measuring  instrument  for  determining  the  degree  of  trade  skill 
with  a  view  to  the  correct  placement  of  this  skill  within  an 
organization,  the  precise  needs  of  which  have  been  previously 
determined  by  exhaustive  study  and  detailed  analysis.  Without 
some  form  of  qualification  card,  which  could  guide  the  examiner 
and  serve  as  a  permanent  record,  without  an  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  trade  requirements  of  the  army,  it  would  have 
been  impossible  to  derive  the  full  benefit  from  the  trade  tests 


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ARMY   AND   INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM     361 

themselves.    Only  as  the  trade  test  forms  part  of  an  organic  unit 
can  it  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

Analogy  between  the  Army  and  the  Industrial  Problem 

The  question  of  the  extent  to  which  the  present  measuring 
devices  of  the  army  can  be  applied  directly  to  industry  depends 
upon  the  extent  to  which  the  conditions  of  an  industry  coincide 
with  those  of  the  army.  In  a  very  real  sense,  the  effective 
utilization  of  the  available  skilled  personnel  within  the  army 
was  essentially  a  similar  problem  to  that  which  is  faced  by  the 
employment  office  in  large  industrial  plants.  The  army  on  a 
large  scale,  the  employment  manager  of  an  industry  on  a  smaller 
scale,  must  function  to  bring  man  and  job  together  with  due 
regard  to  the  qualifications  of  the  former  and  the  demands  of 
the  latter.  Trade  tests  in  one  form  or  another  will  accomplish 
this  purpose,  if  they  are  made  an  integral  part  of  the  total 
mechanism  of  placement.  Just  as  in  the  army  it  was  necessary 
to  know  the  number  of  men  with  various  trade  skills  that  were 
required,  together  with  an  exact  knowledge  of  the  duties  within 
each  of  the  trades,  so  it  is  necessary  in  the  industry,  before  any 
system  of  trade  testing  is  set  up,  to  conduct  a  thorough  survey 
of  occupational  needs  and  requirements. 

This  introduces  an  idea  which  is  rapidly  gaming  favor  in 
industry.  Adequate  knowledge  of  the  employment  situation 
within  a  plant  necessitates,  at  its  inception,  a  complete  analysis 
of  the  various  occupations  represented.  Job  analysis,  or  occupa- 
tional specification,  is  the  forerunner  of  the  construction  of  an 
accurate  placement  scheme. 

It  is  obviously  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  analyze  the 
human  element  when  there  has  been  no  corresponding  analysis 
of  the  jobs  to  which  the  human  material  is  to  be  assigned.  The 
analysis  of  the  man  and  the  analysis  of  the  job  are  interwoven 


362  TRADE    TESTS 

throughout  the  whole  process  of  placement.  One  of  the  lines 
along  which  there  is  a  possibility  for  a  great  saving  of  human 
material  lies  in  the  direction  of  much  more  detailed  investigation 
of  the  various  occupations  within  the  confines  of  the  industrial 
plant. 

If  one  considers  the  way  hi  which  the  processes  of  industry 
have  become  more  specialized  during  the  past  twenty-five  years, 
how  new  trades  have  come  into  existence  and  older  trades  have 
been  split  into  various  minor  trades,  the  necessity  for  this  step 
becomes  apparent.  Thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  trades  and  occu- 
pations were  limited  in  number  and  fairly  definite  in  content. 
A  carpenter  was  a  general  carpenter,  a  machinist,  a  general 
machinst.  A  particular  product  passed  through  all  its  stages 
in  the  hands  of  one  man;  starting  with  the  raw  material  it 
passed  to  the  finished  stage  in  the  hands  of  a  single  tradesman. 
The  procedure  necessitated  all  round  skill  and  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  each  tradesman.  To-day,  under  production  methods, 
this  same  product  may  pass  through  the  hands  of  ten  or  fifteen 
men,  each  one  performing  a  single  operation,  and  possibly  being 
skilled  in  this  operation  alone. 

Again,  the  growth  in  the  size  of  plants,  in  many  cases,  has 
made  the  old  method  of  hiring  through  the  shop  foreman  un- 
wieldy. It  has  become  necessary  to  centralize  the  employment 
operations,  with  the  result  that  a  single  office  must  hire  men 
for  all  types  of  work  within  the  plant.  In  this  respect  the  con- 
ditions within  the  industry  resemble  the  army  situation.  When 
it  was  possible  for  foremen  to  do  the  hiring,  their  first-hand 
knowledge  of  trade  operations  enabled  them  to  give  a  very 
searching  examination,  covering  the  most  involved  operations 
of  the  trade.  Even  under  these  conditions  there  were,  however, 
numerous  disadvantages,  of  which  the  most  important  must  be 
mentioned.  In  the  first  place  the  rating  that  was  given  was  the 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM      363 

result  of  a  general  estimate  made  by  a  particular  person.  This 
resulted  in  an  absolute  lack  of  standardization  of  rating.  A  fore- 
man and  an  assistant  foreman,  interviewing  the  same  applicant 
in  the  same  shop,  would  give  very  different  judgments  with 
regard  to  ability.  Even  when  the  same  judgment  was  arrived 
at,  there  were  no  objective  terms  in  which  it  might  be  expressed. 
Foremen  were  influenced  also  by  many  extraneous  elements, 
quite  apart  from  the  skill  possessed  by  the  applicant.  In  many 
cases  the  questions  given  or  the  jobs  assigned  were  of  a  catch 
nature,  calculated  rather  to  impress  the  applicant  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  examiner  than  to  elicit  information  with  regard 
to  the  skill  of  the  tradesman.  Herein  lay  the  great  weakness  of 
the  method.  The  foreman  was  chosen  on  the  basis  of  considera- 
tions other  than  those  of  skilful  interviewing.  He  was  much 
more  likely  to  be  a  skilled  workman  than  a  skilled  interviewer. 
It  would  be  absurd  to  say  that  this  method  of  employment  is 
unworkable.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions it  is  a  very  wasteful  procedure.  This  method  of  de- 
centralized employment  has  been  abandoned,  not  because  the 
foreman  was  not  a  skilled  examiner,  but  because  of  the  growth 
of  the  industries  themselves.  In  the  interests  of  reduction  of 
labor  turnover  and  in  the  interests  of  production,  it  became 
necessary  to  have  the  hiring  done  by  a  small  group  of  men. 
When  this  centralizing  takes  place,  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
operations  of  the  trade  can  no  longer  be  expected  of  the  ex- 
aminer. %While  it  may  be  possible  in  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant occupations  of  the  plant  to  have  specialists  within  the 
employment  office,  it  is  utterly  out  of  the  question  to  have  ex- 
perts in  all  of  the  occupations  concerned.  The  work  of  employ- 
ment, therefore,  has  had  to  be  handed  over  to  a  small  group  of 
specialized  men  who  can  have,  from  the  nature  of  things,  only 
the  most  superficial  knowledge  of  the  jobs  for  which  they  are 
doing  the  hiring. 


364  TRADE    TESTS 

Common  Methods  of  Interview  in  the  Centralized 
Employment  Office 

The  use  of  a  corps  of  trade  experts  within  an  employment 
office  is  a  possible  solution,  but  it  is  an  exceedingly  expensive 
method  of  operation.  There  is  an  old  saying,  "Never  let  a 
superior  mind  do  what  an  inferior  mind  can  do  equally  well," 
which  this  method  openly  flaunts.  Superior  knowledge  and 
superior  skill  do  not  exist  in  such  quantity  that  industry  can 
afford  to  use  such  skill  except  in  strategic  places  where  it  is 
demanded. 

Another  practice  which  is  very  common  is  for  the  employment 
office  staff  to  give  a  general  interview,  and  on  the  basis  of  this 
refer  the  applicants  for  a  specific  trade  interview  to  the  foremen 
of  the  various  shops.  To  this  procedure,  the  same  objection 
may  be  raised.  It  is  exceedingly  wasteful  to  use  the  time  of  a 
skilled  foreman  in  interviewing  a  large  number  of  unsuitable 
applicants.  His  attention  should  be,  as  far  as  feasible,  concen- 
trated on  what  is  taking  place  within  his  shop.  He  should  be 
distracted  to  the  minimum  degree  by  matters  of  hiring.  Before 
using  a  workman  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  for  the  foreman  to 
be  satisfied  that  he  is  efficient,  but  this  does  not  mean  that  he 
should  interview  all  applicants.  The  foreman  should  receive 
for  further  testing  only  those  who  by  their  trade  examination 
within  the  employment  office  have  shown  sufficient  knowledge 
and  skill  to  give  promise  of  being  suited  to  the  job.  Simply 
because  a  man  claims  trade  ability  and  succeeds  in  passing  an 
unskilled  interviewer  is  not  sufficient  ground  for  reference  to 
the  foreman.  If  this  method  of  hiring  is  used,  production  and 
efficiency  within  the  shop  are  bound  to  suffer.  Any  simple 
form  of  trade  test,  administered  by  an  intelligent  interviewer, 
would  eliminate  ninety  per  cent  of  the  useless  references. 


ARMY    AND    INDUSTRIAL    PROBLEM     365 

There  is  still  another  method  which  is  commonly  employed, 
where  the  interviewing  within  the  central  employment  office 
is  done  by  the  same  group  of  men  for  all  trades.  This  consists 
in  allowing  the  interviewers  to  visit  the  departments  or  shops 
for  which  they  are  doing  the  hiring.  During  slack  periods  in 
the  employment  office  work,  or  in  some  cases,  for  a  stated  period 
before  they  enter  upon  their  duties  in  the  central  office,  they  are 
given  opportunities  to  study  and  in  certain  cases  to  perform 
some  of  the  more  typical  operations  of  the  shop.  They  are  also 
encouraged  to  get  a  few  "stock  questions"  from  the  foreman, 
with  which  they  can  at  least  detect  the  trade  bluffer.  Here  we 
have  the  first  beginnings  of  the  trade  test  idea.  While  this 
scheme  is  far  better  than  that  in  which  the  interviewer  has  no 
trade  knowledge,  the  obvious  criticism  to  which  it  is  subject 
lies  in  the  well-known  fact  that  a  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous 
thing.  The  author  has  seen  interviewing  done  by  young  men 
in  the  employment  office,  where  the  whole  object  of  the  pro- 
cedure seemed  to  be  to  prevent  the  "interviewer"  from  appear- 
ing to  lack  thorough  trade  knowledge.  When  the  examiner  is 
out  of  his  depth,  the  skilled  workman  is  the  first  to  detect  the 
fact.  Under  these  conditions  he  feels  that  he  is  either  passing 
through  a  purely  formal  examination,  or  else  that  he  is  being 
made  a  fool  of.  Both  of  these  situations  are  unfortunate  for  the 
reputation  and  effectiveness  of  the  employment  office.  All  who 
have  worked  in  industry  know  how  important  it  is  that  a  good 
understanding  exist  between  the  various  shops  and  the  office,  an 
understanding  that  should  not  be  confined  merely  to  the  fore- 
man, but  should  extend  to  each  man  in  the  plant. 

From  what  has  already  been  said,  the  use  of  the  methods  of 
job  analysis  and  the  application  of  trade  tests,  are  not  theoretical 
ideas  which  will  have  to  fight  for  a  hearing.  The  situation  in 
almost  all  large  industries  is  crying  out  for  some  device  which 


366  TRADE    TESTS 

will  meet  the  present  difficulties  of  operation.  Every  large 
employment  office,  either  through  its  follow-up  work,  when 
using  methods  of  general  interview,  or  else  through  its  expensive 
office  payroll,  when  the  examinations  are  conducted  by  experts, 
knows  how  necessary  is  some  radical  change  to  better  the  me- 
chanism of  placement.  Just  as  in  the  army  the  occupational 
specifications  and  trade  tests  came  into  existence  to  meet  urgent 
demands  of  the  personnel  officers,  who  saw  that  their  own 
methods  were  completely  breaking  down,  so  also  in  industry 
job  analysis  and  trade  tests  will  enter  to  fill  a  want,  the  magni- 
tude of  which  is  best  known  to  the  employment  office  itself. 


CHAPTER   X 
PROBLEM  OF  OCCUPATIONAL  ANALYSIS 

The  Problem  of  Occupational  Analysis 

THE  general  purpose  of  this  book  does  not  admit  of  any 
description  of  the  way  in  which  a  plant  should  conduct  analyses 
and  construct  sets  of  specifications  for  each  job. 

The  problem  of  job  analysis,  while  simple  enough  as  far  as 
the  idea  is  concerned,  becomes  very  complex  when  the  work  is 
commenced.  It  may,  however,  be  pointed  out  that  from  the 
very  beginning  of  time,  implicitly  at  least,  there  have  been 
rough  forms  of  analysis.  Plato's  "Republic"  gives  us  an  ad- 
mirable example  of  job  analysis  on  a  large  scale.  All  that  is 
proposed  is  to  conduct  these  analyses  in  a  much  more  scientific 
and  detailed  manner,  making  common  property  what  often  is 
the  mental  property  of  a  single  man. 

Any  analysis  of  a  job  can  be  made  from  two  viewpoints: 

(1)  the  human  qualities  and  properties  for  which   it  calls, 

(2)  a  detailed  account  of  the  actual  operation  and  skills  char- 
acteristic of  the  job. 

Of  these  two  types  the  second  is  by  far  the  more  useful.  It 
is  exceedingly  difficult  with  reference  to  any  particular  job  to 
decide  just  what  are  the  human  qualities  required.  Whenever 
an  analysis  of  this  kind  is  attempted,  the  common  list  of  human 
qualities  such  as  perseverance,  patience,  adaptability,  thorough- 
ness, etc.,  gets  rapidly  used  up  and  the  result  is  a  meaningless 
jumble.  It  is  often  found  that  for  twenty  or  thirty  entirely 

367 


368  TRADE    TESTS 

different  jobs  within  the  plant  the  same  basic  human  qualities 
are  required.  The  only  difference  existing  between  the  jobs  is 
found  in  the  different  skills  which  are  required,  and  only  in 
these  terms  can  the  job  be  accurately  defined.  Industry  should 
be  extremely  skeptical  of  any  method  for  selecting  personnel 
based  on  observation  of  different  basic  human  qualities.  Ap- 
plied psychology  has  been  brought  into  great  disrepute  by 
charlatans  who  have  claimed  to  be  able,  by  mere  observation, 
to  rate  employees  for  all  important  traits.  The  author  knows  in 
particular  of  two  or  three  cases  of  exploitation  of  this  kind, 
v/here  the  individual  in  question  rated  each  member  of  the 
employment  force  in  twenty  to  thirty  important  human  traits, 
without  spending,  on  the  average,  more  than  five  minutes 
with  each  individual.  To  measure  human  qualities,  in  fact,  to 
discover  any  objective  scales  upon  which  honesty,  perseverance, 
adaptability,  loyalty,  cooperation  can  be  reported  is  work  which 
lies  in  the  distant  future  of  psychology,  work  which  will  of  neces- 
sity be  slow  and  disappointing,  taxing  human  ingenuity  and 
patience  to  the  uttermost.  While  it  is  true  that  fairly  accurate 
methods  of  measuring  certain  forms  of  intelligence  have  been 
evolved,  and  are  now  applied  with  great  success  in  industry,  too 
great  warning  cannot  be  given  against  the  supposition  that 
the  success  of  these  methods  for  measuring  intelligence,  which 
have  been  the  result  of  twenty  years  of  labor,  will  lead  to  the 
immediate  evolution  of  methods  for  measuring  these  more  com- 
plex human  traits.  In  fact  the  beginnings  of  measurements  of 
this  kind  practically  are  not  yet  in  sight.  Especially  must  the 
employment  manager  be  wary  of  those  persons  who  claim 
heaven-sent  skill,  and  methods  which  savor  more  of  witchcraft 
than  of  the  scientific  laboratory.  Even  if  it  were  possible  to 
conduct  a  job  analysis  upon  the  basis  of  the  human  qualities 
required,  such  an  analysis  would  be  of  little  service,  until  an 


OCCUPATIONAL    ANALYSIS  369 

accurate  method  of  measuring  these  human  qualities  had  been 
devised. 

When,  however,  we  pass  from  the  job  analysis  in  terms  of 
human  qualities  to  actual  analysis  of  the  skills  and  duties  of 
the  job,  we  pass  from  the  shifting  sand  of  human  judgment  to 
the  firm  foundation  of  concrete  fact.  Whatever  may  be  the 
form  and  the  details  in  which  these  analyses  are  made,  there 
seems  to  be  general  agreement  that  three  distinct  characteris- 
tics of  the  job  must  be  analyzed. 

1 .  The  physical  characteristics  of  the  job. 

2.  The  mental  characteristics  of  the  job. 

3.  The  economic  aspects  of  the  job. 

The  essence  of  a  good  analysis  is  to  pick  out  the  essential 
elements  under  each  of  these  aspects,  and  to  describe  them  in 
standard  terms,  which  will  mean  the  same  to  all  men  at  all 
times.  Under  the  physical  aspects  of  jobs,  the  precise  nature  of 
the  work,  in  so  far  as  it  requires  a  particular  physical  organiza- 
tion, will  be  described.  Thus,  for  example,  whether  it  is  heavy 
work,  whether  it  involves  sitting,  standing,  climbing,  hauling, 
etc.  Under  mental  characteristics  will  be  included  an  account 
of  the  educational  requirements,  the  necessary  training  denned 
as  far  as  possible  by  stating  the  actual  operations  which  the 
job  demands,  that  is,  the  actual  tools  which  must  be  employed, 
the  machines  which  must  be  run,  or  the  procedures  which  must 
be  followed. 

In  large  numbers  of  specialized  shops  it  may  be  advisable, 
in  constructing  these  specifications,  to  distinguish  clearly  be- 
tween the  general  duties  of  the  occupation  and  the  specialized 
duties  which  are  called  for  by  the  particular  nature  of  the  work 
in  that  shop  or  plant.  For  example,  in  a  particular  machine 
shop,  the  basic  duties  of  the  occupation  might  be  those  of  the 
general  machinist,  which  would  be  listed.  In  addition  to  these, 


370  TRADE    TESTS 

however,  there  would  be  specialized  duties  characteristic  possi- 
bly of  this  shop  alone.  These  two  types  of  duties  should  be  dis- 
tinguished in  order  to  simplify  the  problem  of  the  employment 
office.  The  trade  test  or  any  form  of  interview  must  be  based 
on  the  general  duties  or  operations,  since  no  applicant,  unless 
he  had  previously  worked  in  the  plant,  could  be  expected  to 
be  familiar  with  the  specialized  duties.' 

Under  economic  aspects  all  such  questions  as  methods  of 
payment  (by  time,  piecework),  hours  of  work,  basis  and  avenues 
of  promotion  are  included. 

These  specifications,  as  has  already  been  said,  will  introduce 
a  common  language  upon  which  exchange  can  take  place.  When 
requisitions  come  from  a  foreman,  there  will  be  no  chance  for 
vague  general  terms.  Instead  of  six  machinists  being  called  for, 
the  foreman  will  ask  for  two  men  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of 
job  27,  and  four  men  to  fulfill  the  requirements  of  job  36.  No 
misunderstandings  can  arise  under  these  conditions,  such  as 
those  often  found  in  the  army.  Thus,  for  example,  an  amusing 
case  arose  in  response  to  a  call  for  a  pipe  cutter.  The  qualifica- 
tion cards  were  consulted,  and  a  "pipe  cutter"  was  assigned  to 
work.  When  he 'reported  and  was  put  to  work  on  a  sewer  in 
the  camp,  it  appeared  that  he  was  a  carver  of  meerschaum  pipes! 
While  this  is  an  extreme  case,  any  industry  in  the  course  of  a 
week  could  duplicate  equally  useless  references,  due  to  the  fact 
that  no  common  language  is  used  in  making  requisitions.  With 
the  entrance  of  job  specifications  and  the  application  of  trade 
tests,  all  such  ambiguities  automatically  disappear. 


CHAPTER  XI 
WHAT  THE  TRADE  TEST  IS  NOT 

THE  TRADE  TEST  is  NOT  AN  INTELLIGENCE  TEST  NOR  DOES  IT 
SERVE  TO  PREDICT  THE  RATE  AT  WHICH  SKILL  CAN  BE 
ACQUIRED  BY  TRAINING 

WHEN  the  various  occupations  within  a  particular  industry 
have  been  analyzed,  the  next  step  is  to  decide  on  those  trades 
or  occupations  for  which  it  is  advisable  to  construct  some  form 
of  trade  test.  Obviously,  in  the  case  of  unskilled  occupations, 
and  in  a  large  number  of  other  occupations,  for  which  skill 
can  be  acquired  in  a  few  hours,  there  is  no  need  for  any  form 
of  trade  test.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  very  clearly,  at  this 
point,  between  the  function  of  trade  tests  and  two  other  types 
of  examination  which  are  entering  the  industrial  field. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  mental  intelligence  test.  Here  no 
attempt  is  made  to  measure  any  specific  skill  which  has  resulted 
from  trade  experience.  The  examination  confines  itself  to  an 
attempt  to  measure  general  mental  adaptability.  In  so  far  as 
any  particular  job  requires  this  mental  equipment,  rather  than 
any  specific  trade  skill,  the  mental  test  can  be  used  with  great 
advantage,  but  it  should  never  be  confounded  or  combined 
with  the  trade  test  proper.  Intelligence  is  dependent  almost 
wholly  on  a  native  endowment;  trade  knowledge  is  primarily 
the  result  of  specific  training  which  has  for  its  object  the  de- 
velopment of  this  particular  trade  skill. 

The  second  type  of  test  which  must  not  be  confused  with  a 

371 


372  TRADE    TESTS 

trade  test  is  that  for  skill  prediction.  For  a  large  number  of 
occupations  very  little  training  is  required;  in  fact,  many  in- 
dustries prefer  to  take  on  "green  hands,"  and  to  train  them 
for  the  particular  operations  which  they  are  to  perform.  The 
performance  of  these  operations  may,  however,  be  dependent 
upon  certain  qualities  or  traits  within  the  individual,  which 
vary  greatly  from  person  to  person.  These  qualities  are  not 
the  basic  human  qualities  to  which  reference  has  been  made, 
namely,  honesty,  pliability,  perseverance,  etc.,  but  much  more 
specific  traits.  For  example,  for  certain  kinds  of  work  it  is 
known  that  good  eyesight,  keen  visual  and  tactual  discrimina- 
tion, a  good  memory,  quick  reaction,  accuracy  of  movement, 
steadiness  of  attention  are  necessary.  No  claim  is  made  that 
all  these  traits  are  required  for  any  particular  occupation,  but 
even  the  most  superficial  analysis  of  some  occupations  reveals 
the  necessity  for  certain  of  these  traits  in  more  than  average 
amounts.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  case  of  the  telephone  opera- 
tor it  may  readily  be  seen  that  a  quick  reaction  to  a  certain 
type  of  stimulus,  and  a  ready  memory  for  certain  kinds  of  ma- 
terial are  a  sine  qua  non  for  success.  Or  again,  for  a  great  deal 
of  inspection  work  where  very  minute  flaws  in  parts  have  to 
be  detected,  good  eyesight  and  keen  visual  and  tactual  discrimi- 
nation are  essential  assets.  Experiments  on  large  numbers  of 
individuals,  performed  in  different  places  and  at  different  times, 
have  all  agreed  in  one  respect,  that  there  are  enormous  individual 
differences  in  the  degree  in  which  these  traits  are  possessed 
by  various  individuals.  Perhaps  the  most  outstanding  contri- 
bution during  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  the  application 
of  psychology  to  human  behavior  has  been  the  revelation  of 
these  extreme  individual  differences.  These  differences,  as  they 
exist,  are  not  due  primarily  to  the  training  which  the  person 
has  received,  but  are  much  more  fundamental  in  so  far  as  the 


WHAT   THE    TRADE    TEST   IS    NOT        373 

traits  are  the  result  of  the  inheritance  of  a  definite  nervous 
mechanism.  Training  has,  of  course,  some  effect  upon  the  final 
skill  which  the  person  acquires,  but  the  extent  to  which  he 
profits  by  the  training  is  very  dependent  upon  the  particular 
nervous  mechanism  which  he  brings  to  the  learning  process.  It 
is  by  no  means  merely  a  question  of  perseverance.  In  some 
cases,  though  perseverance  be  unstinted,  and  the  period  of 
training  as  long  as  possible,  skill  in  tactual  and  visual  discrimi- 
nation will  be  poorer  than  it  is  in  other  cases  before  the  period  of 
training  is  commenced.  In  fact,  in  a  large  number  of  what  are 
called  elemental  traits,  the  amount  of  improvement  with  prac- 
tice is  very  small.  It  is  patent  that  it  is  extremely  wasteful  for 
industry  to  hire  for  a  particular  operation  requiring  very  keen 
visual  or  tactual  discrimination  applicants  who  do  not  possess 
this  trait  in  a  fairly  high  degree.  Failure  in  a  large  number  of 
employees  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  employee  himself,  but 
is  due  to  the  faulty  method  of  selection  used  by  the  employment 
office.  A  particular  applicant,  who  in  all  general  respects  may 
be  competent  for  a  hundred  and  one  jobs,  may  have  such  a 
low  degree  of  the  trait  essential  for  a  specific  process  that  it  is 
absolutely  futile  to  attempt  to  train  him.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, it  is  very  desirable  to  have  some  form  of  tests  which  will 
distinguish  between  individuals  of  different  degrees  of  native 
endowment.  Such  tests  are  in  no  sense  trade  tests.  They  make 
no  attempt  to  measure  skill  which  has  been  acquired  in  a  specific 
occupation.  They  are  essentially  "skill  prediction"  tests,  or 
"vocational  aptitude"  tests,  as  they  have  been  sometimes 
called.  They  do  not  measure  skill  and  information  which  the 
individual  actually  has  acquired  when  following  a  trade,  but 
they  attempt  to  measure  the  suitability  of  the  applicant  for 
entering  upon  a  process  of  training. 
While  these  two  forms  of  test,  the  mental  test  and  the  skill 


374  TRADE    TESTS 

prediction  test,  both  have  a  great  sphere  of  usefulness  in  indus- 
try, it  is  very  essential  to  precise  thinking  on  the  subject  of 
industrial  testing  not  to  confuse  these  with  the  trade  test  proper. 
The  trade  test  makes  no  pretence  at  measuring  intelligence 
directly;  it  makes  no  attempt  to  measure  the  native  endowment 
of  the  subject,  with  a  view  to  predicting  the  degree  of  success 
to  be  expected  as  a  result  of  training  in  a  specific  trade;  the 
trade  test  furnishes  a  rating,  in  objective  quantitative  terms,  of 
the  degree  of  trade  ability  already  possessed  as  a  result  of  prac- 
tice in  the  trade. 

Nevertheless,  in  a  very  real  sense,  a  trade  rating  can, 
under  certain  conditions,  be  used  as  a  help  in  predicting  the 
future  capability  of  a  tradesman.  This  point  will  now  receive 
attention. 

Interpretation  of  the  Trade  Status  Rating 

A  rating  of  a  tradesman  cannot,  under  all  circumstances,  be 
taken  at  its  face  value.  It  must  in  many  cases  be  interpreted 
in  terms  of  his  previous  educational  experience,  the  amount  and 
variety  of  his  previous  industrial  experience,  and  such  other 
social  and  personal  data  as  are  significant.  For  example,  two 
men,  both  rating  as  apprentices  when  given  the  same  test,  are 
of  totally  different  trade  value,  if  one  has  earned  the  rating  as 
the  result  of  six  months'  experience  whereas  the  other  has  been 
engaged  in  the  trade  for  five  years  and  still  earns  the  same  rat- 
ing. In  the  last-named  case,  owing  to  lack  of  intelligence  or 
lack  of  interest,  in  spite  of  considerable  experience  in  the  trade, 
the  learning  process  has  been  so  slow  that  little  prospect  can 
be  entertained  of  any  considerable  advance  with  further  train- 
ing. The  man  is  an  apprentice  and  will  probably  remain  an 
apprentice  all  his  life.  In  the  first  case,  however,  the  achieve- 
ment in  the  test  is  such  that  rapid  progress  may  be  expected  as 


WHAT    THE    TRADE    TEST   IS    NOT        375 

the  result  of  further  experience.  For  present  purposes  both 
men  may  be  of  equal  value,  but  from  the  standpoint  of  future 
usefulness  they  have  totally  different  worth.  A  trade  rating  is 
a  measure  which  must  be  interpreted  in  the  light  of  other  factors 
than  those  of  present  performance. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  USE  OF  THE   VARIOUS   TYPES  OF  TRADE 
TESTS 

The  Use  of  the  Oral  Test 

THE  question  as  to  which  form  of  trade  test  shall  be  used, 
oral,  picture,  performance  or  written,  depends  wholly  on  the 
nature  of  the  trade  and  the  particular  purpose  of  the  test  within 
the  plant.  Certain  general  factors  have  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  making  the  final  choice.  While  it  is  possible,  of 
course,  to  use  all  three  forms  of  test  in  the  initial  stages  of  the 
introduction  of  the  idea,  it  is  more  than  likely  that  such  dupli- 
cation of  measuring  instruments  will  not  be  expedient.  Where 
the  trade  under  consideration  is  one  which  requires  a  consider- 
able amount  of  information,  and  where  the  class  of  workman 
that  is  hired  is  English  speaking,  it  will  usually  be  wise  to  start 
with  some  form  of  oral  or  picture  test.  The  simplicity  in  con- 
struction combined  with  the  ease  in  administration  are  points 
which  favor  the  oral  and  picture  method  to  such  an  extent  that 
only  where  these  forms  of  test  are  out  of  the  question  will  the 
performance  method  be  resorted  to  as  a  first  type  of  selective 
examination.  When  it  has  been  decided  to  use  either  of  these 
two  forms  of  trade  test,  the  problem  of  compilation  of  the  ques- 
tion closely  resembles  that  already  described  in  the  army  proc- 
ess. There  are,  however,  one  or  two  factors  which  commonly 
enter  into  the  industrial  situation  to  complicate  the  issue.  The 
first  of  these  concerns  the  problem  of  the  type  of  question,  the 
second  concerns  the  coaching  factor. 

376 


USE    OF   THE    VARIOUS   TYPES  377 

The  Non-specialized  Question 

One  of  the  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  the  compilation  of  groups 
of  questions  for  specific  trades  within  a  particular  industry  ia 
the  possibility  of  securing  a  number  of  questions  which  are 
dependent  entirely  on  a  purely  local  condition.  To  illustrate, 
within  a  particular  shop  twenty  or  thirty  general  machinists 
might  be  found  working  on  the  same  class  of  work,  one  confined 
wholly  to  this  particular  shop.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this 
process  was  very  specialized  and  remote  from  the  ordinary  run 
of  work  of  a  machinist,  there  would  be  grave  danger  in  making 
the  assumption  when  compiling  the  questions  that  information 
in  regard  to  these  processes  must  be  possessed  by  all  general 
machinists  who  apply  for  work  at  the  employment  office.  Pro- 
vided such  men  existed,  it  would  be  perfectly  legitimate  to 
frame  a  test  which  demanded  the  precise  information,  important 
for  that  particular  shop.  Usually,  however,  the  employment 
manager  under  such  conditions  is  perfectly  satisfied  to  have  a 
good  general  machinist,  knowing  that  his  trade  ability  can  be 
rapidly  adapted  to  the  specialized  jobs  of  the  shop.  Unless, 
therefore,  the  attempt  is  being  made  to  hire  very  specialized 
labor,  which  is  already  skilled  in  the  particular  processes,  it  is 
very  necessary  to  avoid  questions  which  are  not  representative 
of  the  general  trade.  This  difficulty  was  obviated  in  the  army 
by  visiting  a  large  number  of  plants  in  three  geographical  cen- 
ters. The  selection  of  the  plants  within  a  particular  center  was 
based  primarily  upon  differences  of  work  performed  by  men 
following  the  same  trade.  Where  two  plants  employed  men  of 
the  same  occupation,  doing  almost  identically  the  same  work,  an 
attempt  was  made,  in  the  process  of  compilation  and  standard- 
ization, to  avoid  using  the  men  in  both  these  plants.  In  this 
way  all  localisms  of  the  trade  and  all  highly  specialized  processes, 


378  TRADE    TESTS 

confined  to  one  or  two  plants,  were  avoided.  When  the  ques- 
tions are  compiled,  not  within  a  dozen  plants  but  within  a  single 
plant,  this  point  will  have  to  be  very  carefully  watched.  In- 
variably in  the  army  procedure  it  was  found  that  a  number  of 
the  questions  furnished  by  the  experts  within  the  first  plant 
visited  were  incomprehensible  to  experts  in  other  plants. 

There  are  several  ways  of  avoiding  highly  specialized  ques- 
tions. Usually  within  a  .plant  of  any  size  there  are  a  large 
number  of  men  who  have  not  grown  up  there.  In  fact,  the  usual 
lament  of  industry  is  its  rapid  labor-turnover.  It  is  an  ill  wind 
that  blows  no  good  —  these  very  men  can  furnish  valuable  in- 
formation to  the  compilers  of  questions.  The  application  of 
doubtful  questions  to  such  men  will  decide  whether  the  process 
around  which  the  question  is  framed  is  local  or  common  to 
many  plants.  Not  having  grown  up  within  the  plant,  these 
men  will  also  suggest  questions  of  a  general  nature  which  would 
not  arise  as  the  result  of  study  of  the  processes  in  a  particular 
shop.  A  further  device  for  eliminating  questions  of  this  type  is 
by  consulting  standard  text  books  and  trade  journals.  One 
important  warning,  however,  must  be  issued.  In  the  attempt 
to  get  away  from  specialized  questions,  there  is  a  danger  that 
the  compiler  may  also  get  away  from  the  practical  conditions 
of  the  trade.  Generally  speaking,  his  only  source  of  thoroughly 
practical  information  is  the  shop  itself.  It  is  far  better  to  have 
an  occasional  specialized  question  than  it  is  to  have  a  series  of 
questions  which  do  not  reflect  general  shop  conditions.  In  the 
case  of  small  shops  where  there  are  but  few  men  representing 
any  one  trade,  the  only  method  of  constructing  satisfactory 
trade  tests  will  be  by  cooperative  experiments  with  other  plants. 
Without  wide  diversity  in  operators  and  a  sufficient  number  for 
the  process  of  try-out  and  standardization  it  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion to  manufacture  a  rigid  trade  test. 


USE    OF    THE    VARIOUS   TYPES  379 

Factor  of  Coaching 

Within  the  army  the  danger  of  previous  coaching  of  the 
recruit  was  reduced  to  a  minimum,  by  giving  the  examination 
at  the  time  of  entry.  It  formed  but  a  small  part  of  a  larger 
process  of  examination.  The  recruit  at  the  end  of  the  whole 
examination  had  little  chance  of  remembering  the  details  of 
any  part  of  it.  Even  if  information  were  retained  by  a  recruit, 
it  was  almost  impossible  to  transfer  this  information  to  other 
men  who  at  a  later  time  would  come  up  for  examination.  When 
the  trade  tests  were  first  constructed,  the  danger  of  coaching 
was  felt  to  be  so  real  that  supplementary  questions  were  added, 
which  did  not  form  part  of  the  examination  upon  which  the  man 
was  rated.  The  instructions  with  regard  to  the  use  of  these 
supplementary  questions  called  for  their  administration,  if  by  any 
chance  the  suspicions  of  the  examiner  were  aroused,  causing  him 
to  think  that  the  candidate  had  been  coached  for  the  examina- 
tion. The  whole  group  of  supplementary  questions  was  never 
given  to  any  one  candidate.  It  was  discovered,  however,  that 
coaching  was  not  taking  place,  with  the  result  that  in  the  later 
forms  of  test  the  supplementary  questions  were  omitted. 

The  assumption  that  in  industry  the  coaching  factor  will  not 
enter  would  be  erroneous.  A  method  of  oral  or  picture  trade 
testing  must  be  devised  which  will  frustrate  any  attempts  in 
this  direction.  There  is  only  one  way  in  which  the  danger  can 
be  avoided,  i.e.,  by  having  a  large  number  of  questions  which 
can  be  used  in  a  more  or  less  random  order.  There  is  probably 
no  trade  so  barren  that  it  cannot  furnish  several  hundred  ques- 
tions conforming  to  the  requirements  which  have  already  been 
cited.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  more  complex  trades  should 
not  furnish  several  thousand  satisfactory  questions.  In  com- 
piling and  standardizing  these  questions,  a  good  mechanical 


380  TRADE    TESTS 

device  for  securing  the  necessary  information  is  to  use  a  filing 
system.  Then  each  question  which  arises  can  be  placed  on  a 
single  card,  on  which  the  results  of  the  preliminary  try-out  and 
the  final  try-out  can  also  be  recorded.  If  the  question  is  suit- 
able for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  constructed,  by  a  simple 
statistical  method  its  degree  of  difficulty  can  be  calculated  and 
noted  on  the  card.  Another  alternative  is  to  construct  several 
groups  of  questions  combining,  let  us  say,  fifty  questions  of 
known  degree  of  difficulty  into  twelve  or  fifteen  sets  of  ten  to 
twelve  questions  each.  The  score  that  may  be  expected  on 
each  one  of  these  sets  can  then  be  deduced  from  the  material 
furnished  by  the  original  cards.  The  advantage  of  the  filing 
system  is  that  questions  can  be  added  from  time  to  time,  thereby 
maintaining  a  cumulative  system  of  examination. 

Standard  of  Achievements  in  Industry 

The  question  of  establishing  standards  of  achievement  raises 
a  further  point  concerning  the  contrast  between  army  and  indus- 
trial conditions.  When  a  recruit  claiming  skill  was  examined  in 
the  camp  to  which  he  was  sent,  his  rating  in  the  trade  examina- 
tion was  in  many  cases  the  sole  criterion  for  transfer  to  meet 
trade  requisitions  in  other  camps  or  in  France.  It  was  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  have  a  form  of  examination  which  yielded 
a  very  accurate  rating  of  the  degree  of  skill  possessed.  A  trade 
test,  carelessly  standardized,  might  easily  result  in  the  transfer 
of  men  to  France  who  were  entirely  unsuited  to  perform  the 
work  for  which  they  were  requisitioned.  Again,  the  necessity 
for  fine  differentiation  between  degrees  of  ability  arose  because 
of  the  extreme  value  of  highly  skilled  tradesmen.  Where  the 
army  specifications  called  for  an  apprentice  workman,  it  was 
obviously  wasteful  to  send  a  journeyman  or  expert  unless  the 
two  last  named  could  not  be  used  in  any  other  place  to  greater 


USE    OF    THE    VARIOUS   TYPES  381 

advantage.  This  differentiation  between  apprentice,  journey- 
man and  expert  and  particularly  between  journeyman  and 
expert  necessitated  very  accurate  standardization.  Generally 
speaking,  the  accuracy  which  is  sought  in  any  instrument  varies 
directly  with  the  importance  and  finality  of  the  decision  which 
results  from  the  measurement.  In  the  case  of  the  army,  where 
transfer  involving  time  and  money  was  dependent  upon  the 
decision,  it  was  very  advisable  to  use  every  care  in  calibrating 
the  test.  The  importance  of  the  army  decision  was  infinitely 
greater  than  that  of  the  same  decision  usually  made  in  industry, 
where  failure  or  success  merely  results  in  rejection  or  reference 
to  a  foreman.  Furthermore,  the  distinction  between  journey- 
man and  expert,  which  made  the  process  of  standardization 
somewhat  laborious  for  the  army,  is  rarely  called  for  in  in- 
dustry. The  three  essential  classifications  in  ninety  per  cent 
of  the  interviews  hi  an  employment  office  are  (i)  novice  or 
bluffer,  (2)  a  helper  or  learner,  (3)  journeyman  (skilled  man). 
Usually  these  three  classes  are  so  well  separated  by  any  form 
of  test  that  the  process  of  standardization  can  be  much  cur- 
tailed. It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  general  rule.  The 
feeling  of  the  author  is,  however,  that  particularly  at  the  time 
of  introduction  of  trade  tests  into  industry  it  is  very  easy  to 
spend  too  much  effort  in  accurate  calibration  of  questions  and 
tests.  Each  question  must  of  course  be  administered  to  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  men  of  different  degrees  of  trade  standing  to 
insure  its  conformity  to  the  requirements  of  a  good  oral  or  pic- 
ture test.  Too  much  time  can  hardly  be  spent  in  acquiring 
facility  in  constructing  the  question  yielding  the  right  type  of 
answer;  too  much  time  cannot  be  spent  in  confirming  the  fact 
that  the  content  of  the  question  is  satisfactory,  but  it  will  be 
very  easy  to  waste  time  by  attempting  to  calibrate  the  tests  to 
make  fine  distinctions  when  the  tests  themselves,  under  the 


382  TRADE    TESTS 

actual  conditions  of  the  employment  office,  will  never  be  called 
upon  to  make  such  fine  differentiations. 

The  Use  of  t/ie  Performance  Trade  Test 

If  for  language  reasons  or  because  the  nature  of  the  trade 
does  not  lend  itself  to  oral  or  picture  methods  it  is  decided  to 
use  a  performance  test,  great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  choice 
of  the  performance  or  performances.  The  operation  must  be 
typical  of  the  trade  as  it  is  carried  out  in  various  plants.  It 
must  be  of  such  simplicity  that  on  the  basis  of  time  taken  and 
product  produced  the  applicant  can  be  rated  objectively.  Fi- 
nally it  must  differentiate  between  those  levels  of  trade  ability 
which  at  a  later  time  it  will  be  used  to  measure.  Generally 
speaking,  unless  a  particular  performance  reveals  a  marked  dif- 
ference in  skill  between  the  apprentice  and  journeyman,  it  will 
be  of  no  wide  service  in  industry.  Whether  the  test  need  dis- 
tinguish between  the  ordinary  journeyman  and  the  so  called 
expert,  is  much  mor,e  doubtful.  In  those  plants  with  which  the 
author  is  familiar,  such  differentiation  is  not  usually  demanded. 

The  scope  of  the  performance  test  is  unlimited;  its  main  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  have  already  been  touched  upon. 
It  may,  however,  be  interesting  to  note  how  the  performance 
trade  test  differs  from  the  usual  try-out  given  to  an  applicant 
by  the  foreman.  In  the  latter  it  is  commonly  a  matter  of  chance 
what  operation  is  used  as  the  test;  it  depends  on  the  machines 
that  are  free,  the  time  of  day  and  the  caprice  of  the  foreman. 
Particularly,  if  a  foreman  takes  a  dislike  at  sight  to  an  applicant, 
the  operation  assigned  for  performance  is  apt  to  be  an  extremely 
difficult  one,  with  failure  almost  certain.  No  detailed  standard 
directions  or  specifications  are  given  with  reference  to  the  job 
itself.  If  the  foreman  has  free  time,  the  applicant  has  a  much 
better  chance  for  receiving  full  explanations  than  if  the  shop  is 


USE    OF    THE    VARIOUS    TYPES  383 

busy  and  the  foreman  rushed.  Another  essential  difference  is 
that  in  the  usual  try-out  there  are  no  standards  of  achievement 
laid  down;  the  foreman  uses  his  own  personal  judgment,  not 
rating  by  the  time  factor  or  by  attention  to  certain  details  of 
the  process  or  qualities  of  the  product,  the  importance  of  which 
have  been  already  determined  and  correspondingly  weighted  in 
the  final  score.  In  other  words  the  whole  examination  suffers 
from  all  the  disadvantages  which  are  the  concomitant  of  a  hap- 
hazard process  as  opposed  to  a  scientific  process.  The  result  is 
that  justice  is  not  done  to  the  applicant,  the  plant  or  the  fore- 
man. The  foreman  is  not  to  be  blamed  for  the  arbitrariness  of 
his  judgment ;  with  such  a  process  of  examination  no  other  form 
of  judgment  is  possible.  Contrast  this  with  the  scientific  per- 
formance test  chosen  after  due  experimentation  with  various 
procedures  of  the  trade.  Here  every  applicant  is  given  the 
same  job  to  perform,  to  each  are  given  precisely  the  same  tools 
and  equipment,  precisely  the  same  directions;  every  applicant 
finally  is  judged  according  to  fixed  standards,  on  the  basis  of 
time  consumed  and  certain  qualities  of  the  final  product.  There 
is  the  same  chance  for  all,  and  ability  can  be  judged  and  rated 
in  terms  which  are  objective  and,  therefore,  comparable  with 
the  ratings  of  all  other  applicants.  The  standards  are  the  same 
from  month  to  month  and  are  independent  of  the  examiner  giv- 
ing the  test.  The  arbitrary  and  subjective  judgment  is  replaced 
by  the  scientific  measuring  rod. 

The  drawbacks  which  attend  the  performance  method,  from 
the  standpoint  of  their  industrial  application,  are: 

(1)  the  greater  time  consumed  in  examination, 

(2)  the  equipment  necessary  for  the  examination,  i.e.,  tools, 

machines,  material, 

(3)  the  room  required  for  administering  tests  to  several  appli- 

cants at  the  same  time, 

(4)  the  greater  difficulty  in  constructing  the  test. 


384  TRADE    TESTS 

If  these  points  do  not  render  the  oral  method  the  more  ad- 
vantageous, the  introduction  of  the  performance  test  brings 
with  it  many  incidental  advantages.  The  attitude  of  the  appli- 
cant towards  this  type  of  examination  has  already  been  con- 
sidered; there  is  no  doubt  that  a  well-chosen  performance  test 
gives  the  workman  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  with  regard  to  the 
fairness  of  the  selective  method  which  in  certain  cases  is  lack- 
ing when  the  oral  tests  are  used.  It  is,  however,  rather  easy 
to  overestimate  the  importance  of  this  point.  In  examining 
several  hundred  men  each  day  for  several  weeks,  in  eighty  trades, 
in  a  large  employment  office,  the  author  can  only  remember  four 
cases  in  which  the  applicant  openly  expressed  his  skepticism 
and  disapproval  of  the  oral  examination.  In  a  large  number  of 
cases,  where  the  oral  test  revealed  little  ability,  the  applicant 
would  make  statements  such  as  the  following:  "Well,  I  guess 
you  called  my  bluff. "  "As  a  matter  of  fact,  I  never  worked  at 
the  trade,  but  my  father  was  in  it  and  I  thought  I  knew  a  good 
bit  about  it."  "To  tell  the  truth,  I  have  only  been  on  produc- 
tion work,  but  I  thought  I  could  get  by  as  a  machinist."  In 
addition,  the  performance  test,  if  well  chosen,  is  almost  free 
from  the  danger  of  coaching.  Words  may  be  learnt  readily, 
but  to  master  knacks  and  acquire  skill  is  a  very  different  matter. 
The  claim  cannot  be  made  that  an  appl'cant  cannot  be  coached 
for  the  examination,  but  it  is  much  more  difficult  and  requires 
much  greater  time  than  in  the  case  of  the  oral  tests.  In  a  large 
plant  it  might  be  well  to  have  several  alternative  tests,  where 
there  is  any  suspicion  of  special  training  taking  place. 

There  is  of  course  no  reason  for  an  employment  office  limiting 
itself  to  one  form  of  examination;  presumably  within  the  same 
office,  oral,  picture  and  performance  tests  will  be  employed 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  trade  for  which  hiring  is  done. 
Under  certain  conditions  even  for  the  same  trade,  it  may  be 


USE    OF    THE    VARIOUS    TYPES  385 

advisable  to  have  all  types  of  examination.  The  first  rough 
selection  might  well  be  based  on  rapid  oral  examination;  if 
this  was  passed  with  a  certain  degree  of  proficiency,  the  appli- 
cant would  then  be  given  a  systematic  performance  test  to 
determine  his  final  rating.  Even  where  the  oral  test  gives  a 
sufficiently  accurate  rating  of  skill,  as  is  usually  the  case,  a  per- 
formance test  may  be  necessary  if  large  numbers  of  foreigners 
have  to  be  handled,  a  condition  found  in  certain  localities,  in 
specific  trades,  such  as  cabinet  making,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  ADAPTATION  OF  THE  TRADE  TEST 

METHODS  TO  THE   TRAINING  OF 

EMPLOYEES 

THE  USE  OF  THE  TRADE  TEST  METHOD  IN  THE  TRAINING 
OF  EMPLOYEES 

MANY  large  corporations,  to  fill  their  demand  for  skilled  men, 
have  installed  or  are  installing  their  own  trade  schools,  vesti- 
bule schools  or  educational  departments.  Within  these  schools 
a  more  formal  type  of  instruction  is  given  than  that  which  can 
be  expected  in  the  shop  itself.  The  advantage  of  this  method  of 
training  is  apparent.  In  the  shop  the  main  consideration  is 
production;  to  this  end  all  processes  must  lead.  In  so  far  as 
instruction  is  given,  it  is  merely  a  means,  within  this  unit,  to 
increase  the  production.  Under  these  conditions  the  efficiency 
of  the  learning  process  is  sacrificed  to  the  routine  of  the  shop. 
The  instruction  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  actual  proc- 
esses which  the  workman  is  called  upon  to  perform;  there  is 
little  attempt  to  choose  typical  processes  which  contribute  to 
a  broad  understanding  of  the  trade.  Furthermore,  the  foreman 
who  is  in  charge  of  what  incidental  instruction  is  imparted  is 
more  often  chosen  on  account  of  his  trade  skill,  or  power  of 
handling  men,  than  on  any  consideration  of  his  ability  as  a 
teacher  or  trainer. 

The  specialization  of  departments,  which  on  the  production 
side  has  yielded  such  ample  returns,  is  now  extending  to  this 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  387 

phase  of  plant  operation,  namely  the  training  of  employees.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  discuss  whether  the  school  is  whole  time  or 
part  time,  but  it  is  important  to  realize  clearly  the  contrast 
between  the  training  which  is  incidental  to  the  shop  and  the 
school  training  which  exists  solely  for  the  purpose  of  imparting 
instruction.  Within  the  school  there  is  no  bogey  of  production, 
there  is  no  need  to  sacrifice  the  learning  process  to  other  factors, 
though  of  course  in  the  last  analysis  the  school  itself  must  by  the 
efficiency  and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  teaches  justify  its  exist- 
ence, as  a  factor  in  increased  production  of  the  entire  plant. 
However,  the  school  during  the  training  period  can  direct  all 
its  energies  to  devising  and  formulating  educational  methods 
and  devices.  The  nature  of  these  is  dictated  solely  by  the  needs 
of  the  learners  in  the  light  of  the  occupations  for  which  they 
are  being  trained. 

Within  the  educational  department  the  three  fundamental 
problems  which  arise  are  the  old  problems  of  the  school. 

1.  What  shall  be  taught? 

2.  How  shall  it  be  taught? 

3.  How  shall  the  efficiency  of  instruction  be  measured? 

In  the  solution  of  these  problems  the  usefulness  of  trade  tests 
and  allied  devices  is  apparent.  What  shall  be  taught  is  largely 
determined  by  job  analyses,  the  results  of  which  supply  accu- 
rate information  concerning  the  actual  Knowledge  and  skills  de- 
manded by  the  various  jobs.  For  certain  purposes  it  may  be 
necessary  to  consider  the  whole  process  of  instruction  as  con- 
tributing to  the  turning  out  of  a  skilled  mechanic,  but  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  teacher  the  more  enlightened  view  ana- 
lyzes the  total  process  into  its  elements.  While  it  may  be  true 
that  general  trade  ability  is  the  final  goal,  the  more  immediate 
aims  by  which  the  goal  can  be  reached  are  very  definite  and 
specific  in  their  nature.  To  recognize  this  tool,  to  know  its 


388  TRADE    TESTS 

name,  to  know  when  and  how  it  is  used,  to  understand  just 
how  much  heat  must  be  applied,  to  understand  the  working 
of  this  machine  when  doing  a  particular  process,  to  know  how 
to  use  a  micrometer,  how  to  mix  solder,  what  stock  is  suited  to 
the  job  under  consideration,  etc.,  are  the  immediate  aims  of 
instruction. 

The  first  procedure,  therefore,  before  any  attempt  at  impart- 
ing trade  instruction  is  made,  must  be  to  discover  what  are  the 
essential  tools,  the  important  processes  and  the  common  ma- 
terials of  the  occupation.  When  this  information  has  been 
secured,  the  next  problem  is  —  How  shall  the  various  elements 
of  information  and  the  various  kinds  of  skill  be  taught?  The 
problem  is  that  of  devising  a  scheme  of  training  which  will 
accomplish  its  ends  in  the  minimum  of  time  and  with  the  mini- 
mum expense.  The  total  body  of  information  which  has  to  be 
learned  and  the  various  skills  which  have  to  be  acquired  being 
known,  the  question  is  to  construct  a  plan  whereby  the  unskilled 
worker  is  converted  into  the  competent  tradesman.  In  what 
order  shall  the  various  processes  be  taught?  Where  shall  the 
different  elements  of  information  be  emphasized?  What  shall 
be  the  method  of  teaching  each  process?  In  what  way  is  the 
necessary  information  most  readily  acquired  and  retained?  All 
these  are  questions  which  press  for  solution.  In  the  solving  of 
these  problems  an  adaptation  of  the  methods  of  the  trade  test 
can  be  employed  to  great  advantage. 

In  the  description  of  the  oral  tests  it  has  been  shown  that  a 
series  of  questions  can  be  devised  which  cover,  by  sampling,  a 
range  of  knowledge  of  the  whole  trade.  This  was  for  the  pur- 
pose of  measuring  with  the  maximum  speed,  the  general  trade 
ability  of  the  workman.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  at  all 
why  this  method,  instead  of  being  applied  to  the  whole  trade, 
should  not  be  confined  to  first  one  element  of  the  trade,  then  to 


ADAPTATION    TO    TRAINING  389 

another,  until  all  the  significant  phases  of  the  occupation  have 
been  covered.  Thus,  instead  of  having  a  series  of  twenty  ques- 
tions concerning  twenty  representative  elements  of  the  ma- 
chinist trade,  there  might  well  be  twenty  to  fifty  questions  on 
each  of  forty,  let  us  say,  essential  processes  of  the  trade.  By 
way  of  illustration,  we  can  consider  a  number  of  characteristic 
jobs  of  the  machine  trades,  compiled  by  the  Committee  on 
Education  and  Special  Training  of  the  War  Department  and 
reproduced  by  special  permission. 

WAR    DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND    SPECIAL   TRAINING 

NUMERICAL  LIST  OF  JOB   SHEETS 

General  Tools  and  Operations 

1.  Use  a  file  properly  on  work  furnished  by  instructor. 

2.  Use  a  hack  saw  properly  on  work  furnished  by  instructor. 

3.  Grind  a  cold  chisel. 

4.  Use  a  properly  made  screw  driver  in  the  right  way. 

5.  Use  a  caliper. 

1  6.  Chip  a  flat  surface. 

7.  Use  properly  the  wrenches  required  on  the  job  assigned. 

8.  Lay  out  work  according  to  blue  print. 

9.  Lay  out  and  chip  a  keyway. 

10.  File  a  keyway  to  size  and  fit  the  key. 

11.  Grind  cutting  tools  (lathe,  shaper  or  planer). 

12.  Use  properly  the  taps  required  on  the  job  assigned. 

13.  Use  properly  the  threading  dies  required  on  the  job  assigned. 

14.  Measure  accurately  with  a  micrometer. 

15.  Scrape  a  surface. 

1 6.  Measure  and  classify  tapers  of  various  sizes. 

17.  Use  properly  the  hand  reamer  required  on  the  job  assigned. 
1  1 8.  Solder  a  piece  of  brass  to  a  piece  of  steel. 

1  Not  published  in  advance  edition. 


390  TRADE    TESTS 

1 19.  Babbitt  a  bearing. 

20.  Build  a  fire  in  the  forge. 

21.  Cut  off  stock  at  the  anvil. 
:  22.  Draw  out  a  piece  of  iron. 

23.  Forge,  harden,  temper  and  grind  a  cold  chisel. 

1  24.  Forge  a  U  clamp. 

1  25.  Forge  a  bolt  blank. 

1  26.  Forge  a  nut  blank. 


Lathe 

101.  Put  a  lathe  through  its  paces. 

102.  Drill  and  ream  center  holes. 

103.  Face  a  piece  to  a  given  length. 

104.  Turn  a  piece  to  a  given  diameter. 

105.  Turn  shouldered  work. 

106.  Determine  the  proper  use  of  lathe  chucks. 

107.  Finish  a  hole  in  a  lathe  (drill,  bore  and  ream). 

108.  Turn  a  taper. 

109.  Cut  a  thread  in  a  lathe. 

1  no.  Face  and  turn  work  held  on  a  mandrel. 

1  in.  Turn  an  angle,  using  the  compound  rest. 

1 112.  Bore  a  taper  hole. 

1 113.  Use  a  steady  rest  for  turning. 

1 114.  Use  a  steady  rest  for  boring. 

1 115.  Cut  a  square  thread. 

1 1 1 6.  Cut  a  metric  thread. 

1 117.  Cut  a  metric  thread. 

1 118.  Cut  an  inside  thread  in  a  lathe. 

1 119.  Set  up  work  on  a  face  plate. 

Drill    Press 

201.  Put  a  drill  press  through  its  paces. 

202.  Grind  a  twist  drill. 

203.  Hold  work  on  the  drill  press. 

1  Not  published  in  advance  edition. 


ADAPTATION    TO    TRAINING  391 

204.  Drill  holes  as  per  layout. 

205.  Use  a  machine  reamer  in  a  drill  press. 
1  206.   Use  a  counterbore  in  a  drill  press. 

1  207.   Use  a  boring  tool  in  a  drill  press. 
1  208.   Use  a  tap  in  a  drill  press. 

WAR   DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND   SPECIAL   TRAINING 

Shaper 

301.  Put  a  shaper  through  its  paces. 

302.  Finish  a  rectangular  piece  in  a  shaper. 

1 303.  Plane  a  bevel  surface  in  a  shaper. 

1 304.  Plane  a  tongue  and  groove. 

1 305.  Plane  an  irregular  surface. 

1 306.  Plane  a  keyway  in  a  shaft. 

1 307.  Plane  a  keyway  in  a  gear. 

Planer 


1 402.  Hold  a  piece  of  work  on  the  planer  table. 

1 403.  Plane  a  horizontal  flat  surface. 

1  404.  Plane  a  vertical  surface  and  a  bevel  surface 

Milling  Machine 

501.  Put  a  milling  machine  through  its  paces. 

1  502.  Select  a  milling  cutter. 

1  503.  Mill  a  plane  surface. 

1  504.  Mill  a  rectangular  piece. 

1  505.  Mill  a  keyway. 

1  506.  Face  mill  a  surface. 

507.  Put  a  dividing-head  through  its  paces. 

1  508.  Mill  a  bolt  head  square. 

1  509.  Cut  a  spur  gear. 

1  510.  Cut  a  reamer. 

1  511.  Mill  the  square  on  a  tap. 

1  Not  published  in  advance  edition. 


392  TRADE    TESTS 

Grinding  Machine 

1  601.  Put  a  grinding  machine  through  its  paces. 

1  602.  Select  an  abrasive  wheel. 

1  603.  Grind  a  cylinder. 

1  604.  Grind  a  taper. 

1  605.  Grind  a  hole. 

1  606.  Grind  a  face. 

1  607.  Grind  a  cutter. 

Within  the  field  of  each  one  of  these  operations,  a  series  of 
directions  and  questions  covering  the  essential  elements  of  in- 
formation has  been  constructed.  These  questions  serve  to 
bring  out  within  each  operation  what  are  the  points  of  impor- 
tance with  which  the  skilled  tradesman  must  be  acquainted. 
One  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  present  methods  of  instruction 
both  in  the  public  schools  and  in  industry  is  that  the  pupil 
does  not  know,  and  at  present  has  no  way  of  finding  out,  what 
are  the  really  fundamental-  elements  which  must  be  given  atten- 
tion. When  attempting  for  the  first  time  a  particular  job,  each 
part  of  the  operation  appears  to  the  learner  to  be  of  equal  im- 
portance; minor  details  are  given  just  the  same  attention  as 
the  essential  parts  of  the  process.  There  is  no  assessment  of 
relative  values.  In  a  great  many  cases  the  learner  is  so  over- 
powered by  the  details  and  the  secondary  factors  that  the  main 
points  escape  attention.  How  often  after  failure  to  benefit  by 
instruction  we  hear  the  learner  say,  "I  did  not  realize  at  the 
time  that  it  was  essential;  if  only  I  had  known  I  would  not 
have  overlooked  it." 

It  is  just  this  difficulty  that  a  series  of  well-chosen  questions 

will  obviate.     Each  question  will  call  attention  to  some  aspect 

of  the  work,  an  understanding  of  which  is  essential  to  future 

success  in  the  trade.     Concerning  the  minor  parts,  which  may 

1  Not  published  in  advance  edition. 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  393 

well  be  left  for  a  future  occasion,  there  will  be  no  questions. 
The  attention  of  the  learner  will  be  directed  wholly  to  the  ele- 
ments of  vital  importance. 

The  questions  will  not  only  tell  the  learner  what  are  the 
essential  elements,  but  they  will  also  call  for  definite  answers. 
The  workman  from  the  very  beginning  will  have  to  talk  the 
language  of  his  trade.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  how  limited  the 
trade  language  of  many  skilled  workmen  is;  especially  is  this 
true  in  respect  to  the  names  of  tools  and  processes.  Again  and 
again  when  compiling  the  army  tests,  it  was  necessary  to  elimi- 
nate a  question  for  the  simple  reason  that  even  skilled  men  did 
not  know  trade  names.  A  tool  or  operation  which  had  a  per- 
fectly definite  and  simple  name  would  be  referred  to  as  a  "  hickey  " 
or  "the  job  the  foreman  does."  In  fact  in  one  plant  the  em- 
ployer was  so  impressed  with  the  ignorance  in  this  respect  of 
even  his  best  men,  as  revealed  by  the  preliminary  set  of  trade 
test  questions,  that  he  informed  the  author  that  he  was  going 
to  do  a  "little  schooling  on  his  own,"  in  order  to  remedy  a  state 
of  affairs  which  could  not  but  cause  confusion  in  the  stockroom 
and  shop.  This  condition  is  produced  by  a  system  of  haphazard 
instruction,  in  which  the  learner  is  told  to  use  this  tool  or  to  per- 
form that  job  without  ever  having  a  chance  to  hear  the  exact 
language  of  his  trade. 

No  mention  has  yet  been  made  of  the  form  in  which  the  in- 
struction within  each  important  aspect  of  the  trade  shall  be 
given.  The  series  of  questions  will  merely  call  attention  to  cer- 
tain fundamental  elements;  it  yet  remains  to  discuss  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  learner  is  introduced  to  the  operation  under 
consideration. 

One  common  method  is  to  assign  the  learner  to  work  with  a 
skilled  tradesman  or  teacher,  virtually  a  modification  of  the 
old  apprentice  system.  In  other  cases,  the  learner  is  put  through 


394  TRADE    TESTS 

his  paces  in  a  more  or  less  systematic  fashion  by  the  foreman. 
Both  these  methods  are  exceedingly  wasteful  for  reasons  already 
discussed,  but  until  recent  times,  no  other  recognized  method 
has  been  available. 

Under  either  of  the  above  forms  of  instruction,  the  whole 
process  was  haphazard,  depending  to  too  great  a  degree  on  the 
workman,  teacher  or  foreman.  If  the  pupil  was  sufficiently 
curious  to  "worm  out"  the  necessary  information,  or  the  teacher 
sufficiently  attentive  and  conscientious  in  the  imparting  of 
knowledge,  the  process  might  be  reasonably  satisfactory,  but 
in  the  large  majority  of  cases  the  instruction  was  of  a  perfunc- 
tory nature,  from  which  the  pupil  derived  the  minimum  of  skill 
and  information.  Moreover  the  jobs  or  tasks  were  as  a  rule 
not  well  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  the  trade,  and  even  where  the  operation  was  well 
chosen  the  teacher  did  not  allow  the  learner  sufficient  first-hand 
experience  to  perform  the  processes  or  to  become  acquainted 
with  the  tools  and  machines.  A  more  systematic  method  of 
instruction  was  badly  needed. 

The  fundamental  principles  upon  which  the  performance 
test  was  constructed  furnishes  a  valuable  method  of  attacking 
this  training  problem.  Instead  of  the  training  operations  being 
performed  under  chance  and  varying  conditions,  a  device  for 
training  is  necessary  where  every  operation  is  performed  under 
controlled  conditions.  Now  from  what  has  already  been  said, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  essence  of  the  performance  trade  test 
method  lies  in  the  controlled  conditions  under  which  each  job 
was  executed. 

The  scientific  procedures  of  the  examining  device  as  found  in 
the  performance  test  must  be  adapted  to  the  construction  of  an 
equally  scientific  training  device.  It  is  a  well-recognized  fact 
that  we  learn  by  doing.  Especially  in  the  acquirement  of  skill, 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  395 

the  laboratory  method  is  the  only  possibility.  This  being  the 
case,  the  problem  of  instruction  within  any  particular  trade 
resolves  itself  into  the  determination  of  what  are  the  most 
appropriate  tasks  for  the  learner.  While  job  analysis  determines 
the  general  nature  of  these  tasks,  there  are  several  important 
considerations  which  must  be  borne  in  mind  in  the  selection  of 
the  detailed  operations.  In  the  first  place,  each  operation  must 
include  within  itself  the  maximum  number  of  useful  elements. 
It  must  also  be  an  operation  which  is  essential  or  fundamental 
to  the  trade.  Moreover,  the  jobs  should  be  arranged  in  an  order 
of  increasing  complexity.  Commencing  with  a  simple  process 
basic  to  the  trade,  the  job  should  gradually  increase  in  difficulty 
until  the  final  tasks  are  such  as  to  demand  the  knowledge  and 
skill  required  of  an  expert  workman.  All  theoretical  training 
should  be  given  incidentally  in  connection  with  these  assigned 
specific  tasks.  No  workman  should  be  allowed  to  pass  from 
one  job  to  another  until  he  has  shown  the  requisite  amount  of 
skill  in  the  first  operation.  The  manner  in  which  the  trade  test 
ideas  can  be  used  in  connection  with  each  one  of  these  tasks 
must  now  be  discussed. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  phrases  "specific  tasks"  and  "learn- 
ing under  controlled  conditions"  have  been  used.  The  problem 
is  largely  one  of  making  these  various  operations  specific  and 
controlled.  In  the  description  which  has  been  given  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  performance  test,  the  way  in  which  an  operation 
is  standardized  was  made  clear.  The  essential  elements  of  this 
procedure  are: 

1.  Very  accurate  statement  of  the  practical  problem. 

2.  A  clear  enumeration  of  the  tools  and  material  necessary 
for  the  carrying  out  of  the  job. 

3.  A  specific  statement  of  the  essential  qualities  in  the  prod- 
uct obtained  or  essential  activities  in  the  process  performed. 


396  TRADE    TESTS 

These  three  elements  are  necessary  when  the  purpose  of  the 
operation  is  to  measure  the  ability  of  the  tradesman.  Where, 
however,  the  purpose  of  the  process  is  not  to  examine  but  to 
train,  a  further  element  will  have  to  be  added.  Besides  giving 
clear  directions  with  regard  to  the  required  product,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  in  great  detail  the  problems  to  be  met  before 
this  final  product  is  obtained.  In  the  description  of  the  process 
there  will  be  included  a  statement  of  the  tools  which  have  to  be 
employed,  and  an  account  of  the  way  in  which  the  material  must 
be  handled,  and  any  other  incidental  information  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  satisfactory  performance  of  the  operation.  These 
detailed  specifications  of  the  problem,  covering  what  has  to 
be  done,  the  equipment  necessary,  the  methods  of  doing  it,  and 
the  essential  quality  of  the  final  product,  will  be  collected  into 
a  single  job  sheet  for  that  operation.  It  may  well  be  that  in- 
cluded in  this  job  sheet  there  will  be  oral  questions  and  even 
pictures  which  call  attention  to  the  salient  features  of  the  job. 
Each  learner  will  be  responsible  for  seeing  that  he  understands 
and  follows  out  in  detail  the  exact  operations  called  for  by  the 
job  sheet.  When  one  of  these  jobs  has  been  completed,  the 
learner  will  then  pass  on  to  the  next,  and  so  on  until  he  has 
gone  through  all  the  typical  operations  which  are  necessary  for 
success  in  the  trade.  There  is  of  course  the  greatest  room  for 
skill  in  deciding  the  nature  and  sequence  of  these  jobs.  They 
should  follow  one  another  in  an  order  which  is  conducive  to 
rapid  learning  and  each  one  should  present  real  problems,  the 
working  out  of  which  will  equip  the  man  with  first-hand  knowl- 
edge of  practical  details  of  construction  or  operation  and 
provide  a  background  for  the  understanding  of  scientific  prin- 
ciples. A  few  typical  job  sheets  in  tentative  form  are  here  re- 
produced by  permission  of  the  War  Department. 


ADAPTATION   TO   TRAINING  397 

WAR   DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND   SPECIAL   TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

INTRODUCTION  TO  USE  OF  JOB   SHEETS 
The  Purpose  of  the  Job  Sheets. 

The  purpose  of  the  Job  Sheet  is  to  draw  the  attention  to  the  under- 
lying principles  and  important  features  with  which  familiarity  should 
be  attained  through  the  doing  of  the  job. 

Directions  for  Using  the  Job  Sheets. 

General  directions  sufficient  for  beginning  the  job  are  given  in  the 
first  few  questions  of  each  job  sheet.  Start  the  work  according  to 
these  directions,  and,  as  the  work  progresses,  determine  from  the 
remaining  questions  what  other  things  should  be  done,  the  order  in 
which  they  should  be  done  and  the  method  of  doing  them.  Refer 
to  the  sheet  from  time  to  time  as  you  progress  in  the  work  in  order 
that  you  may  be  sure  of  observing  the  details  which  are  important 
and  may  become  familiar  with  the  reasons  for  doing  the  job  in  a 
particular  manner.  It  is  only  by  thoroughly  understanding  the 
underlying  principles  of  this  job  that  you  will  be  able  to  undertake, 
intelligently,  similar  jobs  depending  upon  the  same  principles.  In 
this  way,  the  knowledge  gained  from  doing  one  job  can  be  used  to 
advantage  in  doing  others. 

Sources  of  Information. 

There  are  several  available  sources  from  which  you  may  obtain 
the  information  to  which  the  questions  relate. 

First:  A  study  of  the  machines  and  tools  which  you  are  to  use 
will  furnish  a  fund  of  information  that  will  be  of  value,  not  only  in 
the  job  at  hand,  but  in  any  similar  job. 

Second:  Copies  of  Text  Books,  Hand  Books,  Data  Sheets,  Manu- 
facturers' Catalogues  and  Instruction  Books  are  available  in  the 
shop  library.  These  should  be  consulted  frequently. 

Third:  Some  of  the  men  working  with  you  may  have  had  previ- 
ous experience  which  will  enable  them  to  help  you.  Do  not  hesitate 
to  discuss  the  questions  with  the  other  men  in  the  shop. 


398  TRADE    TESTS 

Fourth:  The  instructor  may  be  appealed  to  for  such  information 
as  you  are  unable  to  get  in  any  other  way.  However,  he  will  gen- 
erally prefer  to  tell  you  where  the  information  can  be  found,  and 
correct  any  misinformation  which  you  may  have  obtained  from 
other  sources. 

Note  Particularly. 

'It  is  of  utmost  importance  that  you  know  the  answer  to  every 
question  on  the  Job  Sheet  and  it  is  e'qually  important  that  you  obtain 
this  information  by  your  own  exertions  rather  than  have  the  instruc- 
tor pass  it  out  to  you.  Information  obtained  by  experience  is  likely 
to  be  retained  and  become  a  part  of  your  personal  knowledge,  while 
information  obtained  from  the  instructor  is  readily  forgotten.  Stu- 
dents should  regard  the  instructor  not  so  much  as  a  source  of  infor- 
mation as  a  court  of  last  appeal,  who  can  settle  discussions  and 
rectify  mistakes.  It  is  much  better  to  have  the  instructor  judge  as 
to  the  correctness  of  the  information  which  you  have  obtained  by 
your  own  efforts  than  to  have  him  give  you  the  information  himself. 


WAR   DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND   SPECIAL   TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job  No.  i 
Use  a  File  Properly  on  Work  Furnished  by  Instructor 

[Obtain  a  convenient  piece  of  flat  or  rectangular  stock  say  about 
2"  wide,  and  catch  it  in  the  vise.  This  piece  may  be  scrap  if  one  side 
is  flat  and  smooth.  Get  a  12"  bastard  file  from  the  tool-room  and 
lay  it  across  the  piece.] 

1.  Can  you  see  between  the  file  and  the  piece? 

2.  Is  the  file  thicker  in  the  middle  than  at  the  ends? 

[Grasp  the  handle  of  the  file  in  the  right  hand,  thumb  on  top 
and  end  of  handle  against  palm.  Place  the  heel  of  the  thumb  of  the 
left  hand  on  the  other  end  of  the  file  and  curl  the  fingers  under.  Do 
not  bear  too  hard  on  the  file,  but  try  to  file  a  spot  in  the  middle  of 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  399 

the  work  without  touching  near  the  edges.     One  or  two  careful 
strokes  are  enough.] 

3.  What  is  one  reason  for  having  the  file  slightly  convex  or  "  bellied  "? 

4.  If  the  file  were  not  bellied,  and  warped  in  hardening,  would  its 

usefulness  be  impaired?    Explain. 

5.  If  the  file  were  not  bellied,  would  it  be  easier  to  "  take  hold  "  or 

harder?    Why? 

6.  Grasp  the  file  properly  as  directed  above;  make  a  dozen  or  more 

strokes  and  test  the  surface.    Is  it  flat?    Is  it  convex? 

7.  What  is  the  effect  when  filing  if  the  right  hand  tends  to  go  down 

and  the  left  hand  raises  slightly? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  when  filing,  if  the  right  hand  tends  to  raise 

and  the  left  to  go  down? 

9.  Is  it  easy  to  file  the  edges  and  produce  a  convex  surface? 

10.  It  may  be  stated  that  in  order  to  produce  a  flat  surface  with  a 

10"  or  a  12"  file,  a  harmonic  movement  of  the  arms,  body  and 
legs  is  necessary.    What  does  this  mean? 

11.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  "knack"?    Is  filing  a  flat  surface  a 

knack?    How  is  a  knack  acquired? 

12.  What  is  meant  by  crossing  the  cut  in  filing? 

13.  Should  the  file  be  lifted  from  the  work  on  the  return  stroke? 

What  is  the  reason? 

14.  When  making  the  forward  stroke  in  filing,  should  the  side  ten- 

dency be  to  the  right  or  to  the  left?    Why? 

[Obtain  from  the  tool-room  a  flat  bastard  file,  a  hand  bastard  file, 
a  second  cut  file  and  a  mill  file;  sizes  12"  or  10",  if  convenient.] 

15.  What  are  the  differences  between  a  flat  file  and  a  hand  file? 

1 6.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  bastard  file  and  a  second  cut  file? 

17.  In  what  way  does  the  mill  file  differ  from  the  other  files? 

18.  What  do  you  understand  by  bastard?    Second  cut?    Smooth? 

19.  How  is  the  length  of  a  file  measured? 

20.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  "double  cut"  file  and  a  "single 

cut"  file? 

21.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  "double  cut"  file  and  a  "second 

cut"  file? 

22.  Which  is  the  easier  metal  to  cut  with  a  file,  cast  iron  or  wrought 

iron? 


400  TRADE    TESTS 

23.  How  should  the  scale  on  castings  be  removed  before  filing  the 

surface? 

24.  What  is  the  reason  a  file  should  not  be  used  to  remove  the  scale 

from  cast  iron? 

25.  Why  should  not  a  new  file  be  used  on  cast  iron? 

26.  When  should  the  coarser  files  be  used?    When  should  the  finer 

files  be  used? 

27.  On  narrow  work,  should  an  old  file  or  a  new  file  be  used?    Why? 

28.  What  can  be  done  to  keep  cast  iron  filings  from  clogging  the 

file? 

29.  How  is  the  handle  properly  fitted  on  the  tang  of  a  file? 
[Obtain  from  the  tool-room  the  following  files  and  place  them  on 

the  bench  in  the  order  named:  10"  half-round;  8"  pillar  No.  oo; 
8"  pillar  No.  2;  8"  round  second  cut;  8"  square  second  cut;  and 
6"  three-square  slim.] 

30.  What  is  meant  by  "safe  edge"  on  a  file?    When  is  it  advisable 

to  use  a  file  with  a  safe  edge?    If  advisable  could  you  grind  a 
safe  edge  on  a  file? 

31.  What  commonly  used  file  has  two  safe  edges? 

32.  Is  a  half-round  file  half  round? 

33.  On  what  kind  of  surfaces  is  a  half-round  file  used?    What  is  the 

purpose  of  having  teeth  cut  on  the  flat  side? 

34.  How  is  the  cut  of  a  file  designated  in  the  smaller  sizes? 

35.  Are  the  terms  coarse  and  fine  as  applied  to  files  relative  for  all 

sizes  of  files? 

36.  What  12"  file  would  you  use  to  remove  stock  rapidly?    What 

file  would  you  use  for  finishing? 

37.  What  number  8"  pillar  file  would  you  use  for  roughing?    For 

finishing? 

38.  What  is  a  file  card?     How  may  a  piece  of  brass  or  copper  rod 

be  made  into  a  most  efficient  file  cleaner? 

39.  What  causes  "pinning"?    How  may  the  pin  be  removed? 

40.  How  many  different  shapes  (cross  section)  of  files  are  you  able 

to  find? 

41.  What  is  a  riffle?    What  is  a  "needle  handle"  file? 

42.  In  your  judgment,  why  should  a  single  cut  file  be  best  for  filing 

in  a  lathe? 


ADAPTATION    TO    TRAINING  401 

WAR    DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND    SPECIAL    TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job  No.  23 

Forge,  Harden,  Temper  and  Grind  a  Cold  Chisel 

[Obtain  a  piece  of  chisel  steel  of  the  size  and  length  required,  build 
a  good,  deep  charcoal  or  coke  fire  and  heat  the  steel  to  a  forging 
heat.] 

[It  is  very  necessary  in  forging  to  hammer  with  well-directed, 
snappy,  solid  blows,  and  the  hammering  should  be  fast  enough  to 
"keep  up  the  heat"  of  the  steel.  In  forging  it  is  advisable  to  keep 
in  mind  the  general  shape  desired  and  forge  along  these  lines.  For 
example,  in  forging  a  chisel,  cracks  are  often  caused  if  the  chisel  is 
allowed  to  get  too  wide  and  afterwards  forged  back  to  width.  In 
order  then  to  forge  a  chisel  in  the  right  way  and  to  have  the  effect 
of  the  hammer  blows  evenly  distributed,  it  is  necessary  to  alternate 
the  operation  on  the  flats  and  on  the  sides  of  the  chisel.] 

1.  What  is  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  fire  fairly  small  in  circum- 

ference? 

2.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  a  deep  fire? 

3.  How  far  above  the  tuyere  is  the  chisel  placed  in  the  fire?    How 

deep  in  the  fire  is  it  buried? 

4.  What  is  the  disadvantage  in  having  too  much  blast?    In  not 

keeping  up  enough  blast? 

5.  In  what  way  will  it  injure  tool  steel  to  overheat  it? 

6.  What  are  the  reasons  for  not  hammering  tool  steel  when  the 

heat  is  lost? 

7.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  white  heat,  yellow  heat, 

red  heat,  welding  heat,  forging  heat? 

8.  How  is  a  piece  of  steel  heated  "thoroughly"? 

9.  How  heavy  a  hammer  should  you  use  when  forging? 
10.  What  general  shape  of  tongs  is  best?    Why? 

it.   How  and  where  do  you  grasp  the  hammer?    Why  not  choke  it? 
Why  not  squeeze  it? 


402  TRADE    TESTS 

12.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "annealing"?    What  two  effects  may 

annealing  have  on  steel? 

13.  Why  is  it  advisable  to  anneal  a  forged  tool  before  hardening  it? 

14.  How   may   steel   be   annealed?     What   is   meant    by    "water 

anneal"?    What  heat  is  suitable  for  annealing? 

- 15.  What  heat  is  suitable  for  hardening?    What  care  must  be  taken 
in  heating?    Why? 

1 6.  What  is  meant  by  'hardening  on  a  rising  heat?  Why  is  this 

advisable? 

17.  How  far  back  should  a  cold  chisel  be  hardened? 

1 8.  What  is  the  proper  temper  color  for  a  cold  chisel?    Why? 

19.  Is  a  chisel  harder  or  softer  than  a  file?    Why? 

20.  What  do  you  mean  by  running  the  color?     By  drawing  the 

temper?  ' 

21.  How  is  the  chisel  held  against  the  grinding  wheel?    Why  not  rest 

the  chisel  on  the  tool  rest? 

22.  When  the  face  of  the  grinding  wheel  is  grooved,  how  may  the 

facets  of  a  cold  chisel  be  ground  flat? 

23.  What  is  the  best  cutting  angle  for  a  cold  chisel?    Why  not  90 

degrees?    Why  not  50  degrees? 

24.  Are  the  facets  of  a  cold  chisel  flat?    Is  the  cutting  edge  straight? 

25.  When  grinding  a  cold  chisel,  what  precaution  should  be  taken 

regarding  the  temper? 

26.  How  would  you  make  a  cold  chisel  if  no  fire  suitable  for  forging 

is  available?    How  could  it  be  hardened  and  tempered? 

27.  If  no  grinder  is  available,  how  may  a  cold  chisel  be  sharpened? 

28.  What  is  a  cold  chisel?    What  is  a  flat  chisel?    Cape  chisel?    Gouge 
.   chisel? 

WAR    DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON    EDUCATION 
AND    SPECIAL    TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job  No.  101 
Put  a  Lathe  Through  Its  Paces 

i.  Move  the  carriage  along  the  top  of  the  bed  by  hand.  What  are 
the  ways  used  for?  How  are  they  shaped?  How  are  they 
finished?  Why? 


ADAPTATION   TO    TRAINING  403 

2.  Explain  how  the  carriage  is  moved  along  the  ways  by  hand. 

What  is  the  feed  rack?.  What  is  the  feed  rack  pinion?  Why 
is  it  called  a  pinion? 

3.  How  are  the  ways  cleaned  and  oiled  properly?    What  will  occur 

if  they  are  allowed  to  become  dry? 

4.  A  large  proportion  of  lathe  work  is  done  "on  centers."    Where  is 

the  "  live  center  "  located?  Where  is  the  "  dead  center  "  located? 

5.  Why  are  the  centers  called  "live"  and  "dead"?    Which  is  hard? 

Which  is  soft?    Why? 

6.  Move  the  tail-stock  along  the  bed.      What  other  lengthwise 

adjustment  may  be  given  the  dead  center? 

7.  If  through  carelessness  the  tail  spindle  is  run  off  the  screw, 

what  caution  must  be  taken  regarding  the  keyway? 

8.  How  is  the  dead   center  removed?     What    caution  must  be 

observed? 

9.  How  is  the  tail-stock  adjusted  sideways?    Why  is  it  necessary  to 

first  loosen  the  clamping  bolts?  Where  are  the  "witness 
marks"? 

10.  How  is  the  tail  spindle  tightened?    Will  a  quarter  of  a  turn  of 

the  binding  screw  loosen  it?  Why  turn  the  binding  screw 
around  three  or  four  times? 

11.  Where  is  the  main  spindle  of  the  lathe?    Why  must  it  he  sub- 

stantial and  accurate?  Why  must  the  hearings  be  substantial 
and  accurate? 

12.  What  establishes  "  the  center  line  of  a  lathe "?    What  is  it  parallel 

to?    When  is  the  dead  center  "in  line"? 

13.  How  is  the  live  center  removed?    What  is  the  use  of  the  "witness 

mark"? 

14.  Why  is  the  face  plate  removable?    What  is  the  proper  method  of 

removing  it?  What  is  the  danger  of  starting  it  on  when  the 
machine  is  running?  What  is  the  diameter  of  the  "large  face 
plate"?  What  size  lathe  is  this? 

15.  What  are  two  advantages  of  the  hollow  spindle? 

1 6.  When  do  you  clean  and  oil  the  thread  and  shoulder  of  the  spindle? 

Why? 

17.  What  part  of  the  carriage  is  called  the  saddle?    The  apron?    The 

tool  rest? 


404  TRADE    TESTS 

1 8.  How  is  the  top  of  the  saddle  finished?    Why  must  it  be  kept 

clean  and  well  oiled? 

19.  Find,  along  the  front  of  the  bed,  the  lead  screw  and  the  feed 

rod;  and  on  the  apron,  the  split-nut  handle  and  the  longi- 
tudinal feed  control. 

20.  Close  the  split-nut  on  the  lead  screw.    Can  you  now  move  the 

carriage  by  hand?    Give  reason. 

21.  Open  the  split-nut  and  tighten  the  feed  control  knob.    Can  you 

now  move  the  carriage  by  hand? 

22.  Loosen  the  feed  control  and  tighten  the  carriage  clamp  screw. 

Can  you  move  the  carriage? 

23.  Why  does  a  machinist,  before  starting  to  work  on  a  lathe,  al- 

ways try  the  carriage  to  make  sure  it  moves  freely? 

24.  Be  sure  the  carriage  moves  freely  by  hand  and  start  the  lathe. 

How  is  motion  transmitted  from  the  main  spindle  to  the  lead 
screw?  To  the  feed  rod? 

25.  Arrange  the  tail-stock  well  back  toward  the  end  of  the  lathe  and 

the  carriage  about  midway  between  the  head  stock  and  tail- 
stock;  have  the  feed  rod  turning  and  "throw  in  the  feed." 
How  far  does  the  carriage  move  while  the  lathe  spindle  makes 
25  revolutions?  Divide  by  25  and  tell  how  far  it  moves  in 
one  revolution. 

26.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  "feed"  in  lathe  work? 

27.  How  do  you  obtain  a  "coarser  feed"  or  a  "finer  feed"  in  this 

lathe?       '  . 

WAR    DEPARTMENT 

COMMITTEE    ON   EDUCATION 
AND   SPECIAL   TRAINING 

MACHINISTS 

Job  No,  507 

Put  a  Dividing  Head  Through  Its  Paces 

i.  Turn  the  index  crank  10  turns  (revolutions)  and  note  what  part 
of  a  revolution  the  work  spindle  makes.  How  many  turns  of 
the  index  crank  are  necessary  to  make  one  complete  turn  of 
the  work? 


ADAPTATION    TO    TRAINING  405 

2.  The  work  spindle  is  turned  by  an  enclosed  worm  wheel.     In 

certain  other  machines,  possibly  on  the  drill  press,  the  action 
of  the  worm  and  worm  wheel  may  be  seen.  Find  an 
example. 

3.  How  can  you  determine  the  number  of  teeth  on  the  worm  wheel 

in  the  dividing  head? 

4.  If  it  takes  40  turns  of  the  index  crank  to  revolve  the  spindle  once, 

what  part  of  a  revolution  will  the  spindle  make  with  20  turns? 
With  5  turns?  With  10  turns?  With  6|  turns? 

5.  How  many  turns  are  necessary  to  index  for  a  gear  of  20  teeth? 

For  40  teeth?    For  80  teeth? 

6.  In  each  case,  as  above,  a  certain  number  divided  by  the  number 

of  teeth  required  gives  the  number  of  turns  of  the  index  handle. 
What  is  this  number? 

7.  State  a  rule  for  determining  the  number  of  turns  or  the  fractional 

part  of  a  turn  of  the  index  handle  to  be  made  for  any  given 
number  of  divisions. 

8.  How  many  turns  for  10  divisions?    For  5  divisions?    For  8  divi- 

sions?   For  6  divisions? 

9.  How  many  circles  of  holes  has  the  index  plate  that  is  now  on  the 

head?  How  many  of  these  circles  are  divisible  by  3?  How 
would  you  obtain  two-thirds  of  a  turn? 

10.  Are  there  any  index  plates,  other  than  the  one  now  on  the  head, 

furnished  with  this  machine? 

11.  If  the  index  pin  is  not  in  a  circle  divisible  by  3,  how  may  the 

index  crank  be  adjusted  radially  to  permit  the  pin  to  enter  a 
hole  in  the  desired  circle? 

12.  What  do  you  use  to  save  counting  the  holes  for  every  move? 

How  are  the  arms  adjusted  and  set  to  include  the  desired 
number  of  holes? 

13.  If  two-thirds  of  a  turn  is  required  and  an  i8-hole  circle  is  used, 

how  many  holes  are  included  between  the  arms  of  the  sector? 
Why  not  twelve? 

14.  What  part  of  a  turn  will  you  make  to  cut  a  gear  of  42  teeth? 

What  circle  will  you  use?  How  many  holes  will  be  included 
between  the  arms  of  the  sector? 

15.  In  which  direction  should  the  index  crank  be  turned?    Why? 


406  TRADE    TESTS 

1 6.  What  keeps  the  index  plate  from  turning  when  the  crank  is 

turned? 

[The  worm  and  worm-wheel  and  the  spindle  are  arranged  within 
a  casting  more  or  less  cylindrical  in  form,  which  is  so  mounted  on 
the  base  plate  of  the  head,  as  to  permit  of  its  being  set  and  securely 
locked  at  any  angle  from  5°  below  the  horizontal  to  30°  beyond  the 
perpendicular.] 

17.  Tip  the  head  to  a  vertical  position.     Can  indexing  be  accom- 

plished?   Tip  the  head  to  45  degrees.    Are  you  able  to  index 
in  this  position? 

18.  In  some  makes  of  index  heads  a  plate  with  24  divisions  is  keyed 

to  the  spindle  just  back  of  the  drive.    What  is  the  purpose 
of  this  plate? 

19.  How  may  the  worm  be  disengaged  from  the  worm  wheel?    When 

is  this  necessary?    Why? 

20.  Before  disengaging  the  worm  why  is  it  necessary  to  take  out 

the  stop-pin? 

21.  What  advantage  has  direct  indexing?    Why  are  there  24  holes 

in  the  direct  index  plate?    How  are  these  holes  numbered? 

22.  Rearrange  the  dividing  head  for  simple  indexing.    How  do  you 

know  when  the  worm  properly  engages  the  worm  wheel? 

23.  How  is  the  center  removed  from  the    dividing  head  spindle? 

What  standard  taper  has  the  spindle  hole? 

24.  Why  is  a  cap  screwed  on  the  nose  of  the  spindle  when  the  center 

is  being  used?    How  is  a  chuck  mounted  on  the  spindle? 

25.  What  plate  is  needed  in  order  to  set  the  dividing  head  at  any 

other  angle  than  parallel  with  the  table?    How  do  you  set  this 
plate  square?    How  do  you  set  it  at  any  other  angle? 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  third  problem  in 
the  educational  process,  namely,  How  shall  the  efficiency  of 
instruction  be  measured?  Given  a  certain  training  process, 
how  can  we  be  sure  that  the  ideas  or  skill  which  it  was  devised 
to  impart  are  "getting  over"?  The  application  of  the  perform- 
ance test  idea  to  the  job  sheet^  method  of  instruction  makes  this 
question  comparatively  simple.  Whether  the  man  has  fulfilled 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  407 

the  requirements  of  the  job  sheet  will  readily  be  determined  by 
the  consideration  of  two  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  job 
sheet  itself. 

In  the  first  place,  can  the  learner,  as  a  result  of  performing 
the  process,  answer  the  various  questions  which  are  included  in 
the  job  sheet?  Secondly,  does  the  product  exhibit  those  stand- 
ard qualities  which  are  the  necessary  resultant  of  the  correct 
performance  of  the  job?  If  the  learner  can  answer  a  prede- 
termined proportion  of  the  questions,  if  the  product  that  he 
has  turned  out,  when  rated  by  standard  methods,  scores  a  reason- 
able percentage  of  the  maximum,  then,  and  not  until  then,  will 
this  particular  stage  in  the  process  of  learning  be  passed.  The 
accomplishment  of  the  job,  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  success, 
success  being  defined  in  purely  objective  terms,  is  the  signal 
for  advancement  to  the  operation  next  in  sequence.  The  job 
sheet,  if  properly  constructed,  will  decide  the  three  questions: 

1.  What  shall  be  taught? 

2.  How  shall  it  be  taught? 

3.  Has  the  learning  process  taken  place? 

It  is  impossible  here  to  go  into  further  detail  as  to  the  exact 
construction  and  methods  of  use  of  these  job  sheets,  which 
would  form  the  basis  of  instruction.  The  exact  function  which 
the  teacher  would  perform  would  vary  with  the  nature  of  the 
operation  and  the  ability  of  the  learner.  The  extent  to  which 
the  theoretical  information  should  be  introduced  in  the  form 
of  questions  would  also  have  to  be  determined  with  great  care. 
Each  element  would  be  introduced  in  connection  with  that 
process  with  which  it  had  the  most  intimate  relation.  One  of 
the  discoveries  which  is  made  as  soon  as  this  device  of  teaching 
is  adopted  is  that  the  old  distinction  between  what  is  practical 
and  what  is  theoretical  tends  to  disappear.  Precisely  the  same 
element  of  information  may  be  theoretical  if  given  at  one  time 


408  TRADE    TESTS 

and  essentially  practical  if  given  at  another.  One  of  the  great 
advantages  which  will  be  reaped  from  the  use  of  the  job  sheet 
method  will  be  the  scientific  determination  of  the  exact  point 
at  which  each  element  can  be  most  advantageously  introduced 
in  the  solving  of  the  practical  problems  outlined  in  the  sheet. 

The  general  directions  which  will  be  given  to  the  learner 
before  commencing  work  on  any  job  sheet  series  will  cover  such 
points  as  the  object  of  the  method;  it  will  be  pointed  out  that 
its  aim  is  to  draw  attention  to  the  fundamental  principles  and 
important  features  by  actually  doing  the  job.  The  instructions 
for  using  the  job  sheets  will  be  of  the  simplest  order;  the  learner 
will  simply  be  told  to  solve  the  problems  as  they  arise;  only 
when  the  workman  is  absolutely  brought  to  a  standstill  will  he 
consult  the  instructor.  The  questions  themselves  and  the 
nature  of  the  job  will  determine  what  has  to  be  done  and  the 
order  in  which  it  shall  be  done.  Constant  reference  must  be 
made  to  the  questions,  for  the  purpose  of  these  is  to  insure  the 
observation  of  the  important  details.  The  workman  will  be  in- 
formed that  these  tasks  have  been  chosen  and  arranged  in  a 
certain  order,  and  that  success  in  the  operations  involved  in 
the  later  sheets  will  be  strictly  dependent  on  the  manner  in 
which  the  underlying  principles  of  the  preceding  jobs  have 
been  thoroughly  mastered.  While  most  of  the  questions  will 
be  such  as  can  be  answered  directly  from  observations  of  the 
process  and  trial  and  error  in  the  use  of  tools  and  machine,  a 
few  of  the  questions  demand  further  outside  trade  information. 
This  can  be  obtained  from  either  text  books  or  handbooks, 
placed  in  the  shop  library,  which  the  learner  will  be  encouraged 
to  consult.  Others  may  be  answered  by  discussion  with  fellow- 
students  who  are  also  learning  the  trade.  Only  in  the  last 
resort  shall  appeal  be  made  to  the  instructor.  Even  then,  it 
shall  be  the  business  of  the  instructor,  if  the  information  can 


ADAPTATION    TO   TRAINING  409 

be  procured  in  reasonable  time,  to  refer  the  learner  to  the  correct 
sources.  The  sterling  virtue  of  this  method  of  instruction  lies 
in  the  extent  to  which  it  places  the  responsibility  hi  all  the 
various  stages  upon  the  student  himself.  From  the  very  first 
job  sheet  the  student  will  know  that  he  is  responsible  for  per- 
forming the  operation;  that  the  answering  of  every  question 
depends  on  his  own  exertion;  that  only  when  all  other  methods 
have  failed  will  he  be  given  direct  information.  Lastly,  he  will 
know  that  at  the  end  of  the  process  he  will  be  held  to  a  strict 
account  in  which  there  can  be  no  shuffling  and  no  bluffing.  If 
he  is  unable  to  furnish  intelligent  answers  to  a  reasonable  pro- 
portion of  the  questions,  if  the  final  product  does  not  show  the 
necessary  standardized  qualities,  he  will  not  be  allowed  to  pass 
on  to  the  next  operation.  Shoddy  work  will  mean,  in  the  first 
place,  a  reduction  of  the  speed  of  the  learning  process,  and  in  the 
last  analysis,  rejection.  In  this  way,  within  each  important 
occupation  for  which  the  industry  gives  specialized  instruction, 
there  will  be  created  a  series  of  hurdles  which  become  increas- 
ingly difficult  as  time  advances.  These  hurdles  will  automati- 
cally create  a  barrier  to  the  student  who  cannot  benefit  by  the 
instructions,  but  to  those  who  can  negotiate  them  the  hurdle 
itself  will  furnish  both  the  exercise  and  the  check.  The  speed 
with  which  these  hurdles  can  be  passed  depends  wholly  upon 
the  learning  ability  of  the  pupil.  It  may  reasonably  be  expected 
that  the  best  will  be  advanced  at  from  five  to  ten  tunes  the 
rate  which  the  slowest  will  attain.  Just  as  the  performance 
test  is  a  standardized,  scientifically  constructed  examining  de- 
vice, so  the  job  sheet  will  be  a  standardized,  scientifically  con- 
structed training  device. 

Up  to  this  point  the  general  implication  has  been  that  the 
training  device  above  described  is  to  be  used  merely  for  the 
breaking  in  of  new  employees.  This  of  course  is  only  one  of 


410  TRADE    TESTS 

the  functions.  It  will  also  be  used  with  great  effectiveness  in 
the  case  of  employees,  who  for  some  reason  —  either  the  trans- 
fer from  one  department  to  another,  or  promotion  within  the 
same  department  to  more  difficult  work  —  need  specialized  train- 
ing. Herein  will  lie  one  of  the  great  merits  of  the  job  sheet 
method  in  which  the  scheme  of  instruction  is  in  well-defined  and 
separated  units.  Where  an  unskilled  hand  is  receiving  training 
he  will  pass  through  the  whole  series  of  training  units,  but 
where  a  man,  already  partly  skilled,  is  receiving  further  training, 
he  will  merely  pass  through  those  units  which  are  new  to  him, 
and  which  are  contributory  to  the  final  trade  ability  required. 

It  is  a  platitude  to  say  that  the  essence  of  the  problem  of 
placement  is  to  know  just  what  knowledge  and  skill  is  in  the 
possession  of  each  employee.  The  above  scheme  presents  a 
method  of  determining  and  recording  this  information  in  a 
very  precise  manner.  The  training  record  of  all  employees 
within  the  plant  will  furnish  a  permanent  register,  which,  to- 
gether with  information  in  other  lines,  will  form  the  basis  of 
promotion  or  transfer  from  one  operation  to  another.  In  the 
case  of  new  employees,  very  slight  modifications  of  the  job 
sheet  will  convert  them  into  what  are  essentially  oral  and  per- 
formance tests.  When  these  sheets  are  arranged  in  a  more  or 
less  definite  order  of  ascending  difficulty,  it  will  be  possible  to 
assign  the  man  on  the  basis  of  the  general  interview  to  that  test- 
ing job  which  is  about  his  level  of  attainment.  There  will  be 
no  need  in  many  cases  to  cover  the  preceding  sheets,  and  even 
if  doubt  exists,  a  few  well-directed  oral  questions  will  give  the 
necessary  information. 

Another  important  contribution  which  will  be  made  by  this 
system  will  result  from  its  usefulness  in  determining  points  of 
weakness  in  the  trade  ability  of  a  particular  man.  One  of  the 
great  merits  of  the  British  system  of  Trade  Tests  lay  in  the 


ADAPTATION    TO    TRAINING  411 

fact  that  the  testing  device  also  gave  very  valuable. information 
with  regard  to  the  elements  in  which  further  instruction  was 
needed.  Their  administration  being  centralized,  it  was  possible 
to  have  the  tests  much  longer  and  more  elaborate  than  those 
found  hi  our  own  army  camps.  The  examiners  were  trade 
experts  who  knew  exactly  the  army  requirements  in  skill.  By 
watching  the  recruit  perform  a  long  series  of  processes,  they 
were  able  to  make  a  detailed  analytic  measurement  of  the  trade 
ability  of  each  candidate.  Thus  they  knew  that  a  particular 
recruit  was  strong  in  certain  directions  and  very  weak  uv  others. 
Consequently  he  could  be  transferred  to  training  schools  where 
the  necessary  instructions  could  be  given  along  just  those  lines 
in  which  the  candidate  had  shown  weakness  during  the  exami- 
nation. The  devices  of  standardized  examinations  and  stand- 
ardized performances  above  described  will  accomplish  this 
same  purpose.  They  will  also  have  the  great  advantage,  which 
the  British  system  lacked,  of  furnishing  standardized  ratings 
of  the  ability  of  the  workman. 

What  has  been  said  must  not  be  interpreted  to  mean  that 
the  instruction  centering  around  the  job  sheets  will  always  take 
place  in  the  school  laboratory  rather  than  in  the  actual  produc- 
ing shops  of  the  plant.  Whenever  possible  the  job  sheets  should 
be  constructed  from  operations  chosen  because  they  are  actually 
contributory  to  the  production  of  a  common  product.  This 
close  connection  between  the  learning  process  and  production 
gives  a  zest  and  significance  to  the  former  which  exerts  a  most 
beneficial  effect  on  the  student.  There  is,  however,  a  very 
marked  difference  between  the  state  of  affairs  when  carefully 
chosen  jobs  within  the  industry  are  used  as  methods  of  instruc- 
tion and  the  old  type  of  haphazard  instruction  commonly  found 
in  the  shops.  The  differences  in  the  two  methods  are  found  in 
(i)  the  nature  of  the  problem  selected  for  learning  purposes, 


412  TRADE    TESTS 

(2)  the  manner  in  which  the  student  is  allowed  to  solve  the 
problem  for  himself,  (3)  the  absence  of  meaningless  routine  and 
drudgery.  In  a  shop  working  under  production  conditions, 
where  these  three  points  can  receive  adequate  attention,  instruc- 
tion may  well  be  given,  but  where  the  conditions  of  production 
do  not  admit  of  such  attention,  the  special  school  shop  should 
be  the  place  of  learning. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  INSTALLATION  OF  TRADE  TESTS 

THE  precise  manner  in  which  the  training  and  selection  func- 
tion will  be  performed  cannot  be  described  in  any  detail.  The 
essential  factor  for  success  of  any  method  or  device  depends  on 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  incorporated  into,  and  articulated  with, 
the  various  other  devices  for  personnel  placement.  No  idea 
such  as  that  of  the  trade  tests  can  be  worked  out  and  reduced 
to  a  standardized  form,  which  can  be  applied  directly  to  all 
industries.  Generally  speaking,  the  author  is  extremely  skep- 
tical of  methods  that  are  introduced  from  the  outside  by  con- 
sultants. Nearly  always  this  results  in  the  plants  being  saddled 
with  numerous  appliances  which  are  not  adapted  to  their 
specific  needs.  The  consultant  or  efficiency  expert  creates  a 
device  to  meet  a  general  need,  which  may  in  only  the  remotest 
way  coincide  with  the  particularized  need  of  the  specific  indus- 
try. Methods  such  as  have  been  described  must  be  applied  by 
men  who  have  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  conditions,  knowledge 
only  found  in  those  who  are  permanent  members  of  the  per- 
sonnel division. 

What  then  is  the  function  of  the  consultant  or  expert?  From 
a  wide  acquaintance  with  the  application  of  these  methods  in 
large  numbers  of  industries  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  con- 
sultant will  have  a  wider  point  of  view,  and  will  be  more  able 
to  diagnose  roughly  the  general  needs  of  the  plant.  Having 
determined  whether  these  methods  can  be  successfully  applied, 
it  is  the  business  of  the  consultant  to  train  individual  members 
of  the  personnel  force  in  the  methods  of  test  construction  and 
administration.  That  is,  the  work  of  the  expert  will  be  that  of 

413 


414  TRADE    TESTS 

training  in  personnel  methods,  and  not  that  of  installing  certain 
devices.  If  the  latter  procedure  is  allowed,  the  firm  will  never 
free  itself  from  the  necessity  of  constant  reference  to  the  original 
consultant.  Whenever  the  actual  device  installed  has  to  be 
modified  to  meet  new  conditions,  the  outside  services  will  be 
needed.  While  this,  of  course,  is  very  profitable  to  the  consul- 
tant, and  to  a  certain  extent  is  his  salvation,  it  is  very  expensive, 
and  even  wasteful,  for  the  firm.  It  is  much  more  advantageous 
to  have  a  single  personnel  member  of  the  organization  trained 
under  careful  supervision  of  those  familiar  with  trade  test 
ideas,  than  to  have  a  thousand  and  one  personnel  devices  of 
which  the  underlying  principles  are  not  clearly  understood. 
One  of  the  objects  of  this  presentation  of  the  trade  test  ideas 
is  to  give  an  intelligent  employment  specialist  the  fundamental 
principles  and  the  necessary  information  so  that  he  may  be 
enabled,  without  undue  wasteful  experimentation,  to  install 
his  own  methods.  The  construction  of  oral  tests,  picture  tests 
and  performance  tests,  is  a  matter  of  trial  and  error;  provided 
the  individual  starts  with  a  few  basic  ideas,  it  does  not  take 
long  to  acquire  the  skill  and  technique  of  construction.  With 
the  person  who  has,  by  one  method  or  another,  acquired  a 
knowledge  of  trade  test  methods  there  will  be  associated  a 
group  of  men,  the  number  of  which  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
plant.  This  experimental  group  will  be  responsible  for: 
-  (i)  Deciding  as  to  the  advisability  of  the  trade  test  method 
in  the  various  occupations. 

(2)  Deciding  with  regard  to  the  type  of  test  used. 

(3)  Construction  of  the  tests. 

(4)  Keeping  the  tests  up  to  date. 

(5)  Application  of  the  trade  test  methods  to  the  problems 
of  training  and  transfer. 

(6)  General  supervision  of  the  administration  of  the  tests. 


INSTALLATION    OF    TRADE    TESTS        415 

In  the  larger  industries  it  will  be  a  matter  of  considerable 
economy  to  separate  the  research  group  that  constructs  the  test 
and  advises  with  regard  to  their  application  from  the  larger 
group,  consisting  chiefly  of  clerical  workers,  who  administer  the 
tests.  The  research  group  should  be  responsible  for  seeing  that 
the  general  methods  of  administration  are  followed  in  order  to 
reap  the  full  benefits  of  the  testing  method,  but  in  so  far  as 
their  work  is  highly  specialized,  they  should  not  be  held  re- 
sponsible for  the  routine  of  hiring  within  the  employment  office, 
or  for  the  routine  of  teaching  in  the  shop  or  school.  It  is  of 
course  necessary  that  they  should  keep  in  the  closest  touch 
with  the  employment  office  and  the  school,  in  order  to  test  the 
general  efficiency  and  workability  of  the  methods  they  devise, 
but  the  routine  work  should  be  handled  by  the  lower  paid  group. 

With  the  introduction  of  oral  trade  tests  into  the  employment 
office,  certain  alterations  of  the  office  arrangement,  while  not 
absolutely  necessary,  will  contribute  greatly  to  their  success. 
The  fact  that  an  oral  test  is  given  makes  it  highly  desirable 
that  the  conditions  of  an  individual  examination  be  established. 
This  can  usually  be  accomplished  by  a  different  system  of  rout- 
ing, or  by  constructing  small  booths  or  office  partitions  at  con- 
venient places.  The  army  in  its  interview  work,  when  a,  trade 
examination  was  necessary,  used  partitions,  such  as  those  shown 
in  the  illustration.  Where  the  existing  arrangements  cannot 
be  altered,  the  oral  tests  can  be  given  with  reasonable  success 
provided  one  applicant  is  called  up  at  a  time.  The  common 
practice  of  allowing  all  that  takes  place  between  the  interviewer 
and  the  applicant  to  be  heard  by  a  number  of  men,  who  in  many 
cases  are  pushing  and  shoving  for  the  next  hearing,  is  exceed- 
ingly bad.  In  a  well-constructed  employment  office,  sufficient 
order  should  prevail  to  enable  at  least  a  semi-private  interview 
to  be  given.  In  the  case  of  the  performance  test,  naturally, 


416 


TRADE    TESTS 


somewhat  elaborate  facilities  are  necessary.  Whether  these 
facilities  shall  be  placed  in  the  employment  office  itself,  in  the 
school,  or  in  assigned  places  within  the  shops  themselves,  is  a 
matter  which  can  only  be  settled  by  a  consideration  of  the 


nature  of  the  tests  and  the  possibilities  of  the  particular  plant. 
The  introduction  of  the  trade  tests  will  of  course  be  gradual. 
At  first  only  the  more  important  occupations  will  be  studied; 
only  for  those  occupations  where  a  good  deal  of  selection  is 
necessary  will  tests  be  devised.  The  author  would  strongly 


INSTALLATION    OF    TRADE    TESTS        417 

recommend  that  the  first  experimental  work  be  done,  wher- 
ever possible,  with  the  oral  question  method.  When  this  method, 
for  any  reason,  is  not  applicable,  resort  must  be  had  to  the 
picture  or  performance  devices.  In  the  interest  of  a  rapid 
return  for  the  effort  expended  in  construction,  and  also  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  confidence  in  the  tests,  administered  by 
interviewers  who  are  not  tradesmen,  the  oral  tests  should  be 
the  first  in  the  field. 

A  further  purpose  for  which  trade  tests  will  eventually  be 
employed,  even  hi  those  industries  where  no  formal  instruction 
is  given,  will  be  to  determine  from  time  to  time  the  manner  in 
which  the  various  employees  are  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
general  processes  of  the  trade.  It  is  probably  true  that  for 
many  years  to  come  the  old  method  of  breaking  in  workers  will 
be  employed,  where  the  applicants  after  a  preliminary  inter- 
view are  sent  into  the  shops  and  assigned  odd  jobs,  assisting 
skilled  workers  in  the  various  places  in  which  they  can  be  useful. 
Under  these  conditions  the  degree  of  benefit  which  is  derived 
varies  greatly  from  learner  to  learner.  Let  us  consider  two 
applicants  who,  after  the  preliminary  interview,  pass  into  the 
same  shop  and  both  work  on  numerous  routine  jobs.  At  the 
end  of  a  year,  if  the  foreman  is  asked  concerning  the  relative 
merits  of  these  two  employees,  he  might  answer  that  both  are 
equally  useful,  in  his  opinion,  which  may  indeed  be  true  as  far 
as  the  work  upon  which  they  have  been  put  enables  the  foreman 
to  make  a  decision.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  one  of  the  applicants 
is  extremely  interested  in  his  trade.  In  his  odd  moments  he 
has  watched  the  other  workmen  in  the  shop,  he  has  attended 
night  classes,  and  he  has  read  up  on  the  processes  of  his  trade. 
The  other  workman  has  conscientiously  performed  the  tasks 
which  he  has  been  called  upon  to  do,  but  his  interest  has  not 
been  sufficient  to  make  him  acquire  other  information  except 


418  TRADE    TESTS 

that  which  was  essential  to  his  trade.  While  in  the  majority  of 
such  instances  the  foreman  will  discover  such  facts  as  have 
been  mentioned,  it  is  quite  possible  in  the  case  of  a  large  shop 
and  a  reticent  employee  for  merit  of  this  kind  to  pass  unnoticed. 
In  other  cases,  even  when  some  workmen  in  the  shop  may  know 
of  this  difference  in  attitude  of  the  two  employees,  it  may  easily 
happen  that  such  information  is  not  known  to  those  who  control 
promotion  and  transfer.  That  this  is  not  a  purely  hypothetical 
state  of  affairs,  the  following  illustration  will  prove.  In  a  large 
plant  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pittsburg,  priding  itself  on  its  per- 
sonnel work,  the  author  was  standardizing  a  set  of  questions  for 
a  certain  type  of  machine  trade.  One  of  the  apprentices  when 
brought  in  for  a  try-out  and  given  the  questions,  astounded  the 
examiner  by  securing  a  score  which  was  slightly  -better  than 
that  of  the  average  expert  in  the  trade.  This  rather  disconcert- 
ing fact  stimulated  curiosity  as  to  possible  coaching,  since  this 
particular  applicant  was  the  fifth  or  sixth  in  order  of  examina- 
tion. Investigation,  however,  proved  coaching  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. An  experience  of  this  kind  naturally  called  for  further 
inquiry,  as  the  whole  success  of  the  army  trade  tests  depends 
on  such  cases  not  arising  unless  there  is  a  very  adequate  cause. 
The  foreman  was  at  once  called  in  and  interrogated  with  regard 
to  this  particular  boy.  The  facts  were  that  he  had  served  an 
apprenticeship  of  a  year  and  a  half.  In  the  opinion  of  the  fore- 
man, his  trade  knowledge  was  on  a  par  with  the  other  appren- 
tices who  were  also  given  the  examination.  Nothing  that  had 
happened  within  the  shop  had  caused  either  the  foreman  or 
the  assistant  foreman  to  single  out  this  particular  apprentice. 
The  foreman  being  unable  to  give  any  light,  the  boy  himself 
was  recalled,  and  he  was  asked  if,  as  far  as  he  could  tell,  there 
was  any  reason  why  he  knew  more  about  the  trade  than  the 
average  apprentice  of  one  and  one-half  years'  standing.  Then 


INSTALLATION    OF    TRADE    TESTS        419 

the  fact  revealed  itself  that  his  father  was  a  skilled  machinist, 
having  a  small  shop  of  his  own  in  the  neighborhood.  The  boy 
from  the  time  that  he  went  to  school  had  been  around  the  shop, 
helping  his  father  and  the  other  men.  He  had  also  been  given 
definite  instructions  in  an  informal  way,  but  his  training  had 
not  been  of  that  systematic  kind  which  would  enable  him  to 
claim  journeyman  ranking.  His  father,  desiring  him  to  work 
in  a  large  shop,  sent  him  to  the  plant  where  he  applied  for  work 
as  a  helper,  and  not  explicitly  claiming  any  special  skill  he  was 
placed  in  the  ordinary  routine  fashion.  It  was  not  until  the 
trade  test  was  given,  one  and  one-half  years  after  his  entry  into 
the  shop,  that  his  real  trade  ability  was  known.  The  examiner 
left  the  plant  and  thought  no  more  of  the  incident  until  three 
weeks  later  he  was  again  in  a  different  department  of  the  same 
concern,  and  happened  to  fun  across  the  aforementioned  fore- 
man, who  at  once  made  the  significant  remark:  "You  know 
that  boy  that  you  picked  out?  We  have  already  promoted  him, 
raised  his  wages,  and  I  intend  to  keep  my  eye  on  him,  for  he  is 
the  kind  of  workman  I  need."  While  this  is  undoubtedly  an 
extreme  example,  there  were  several  other  cases  in  which  the 
employer  made  very  interesting  discoveries  with  regard  to  dif- 
ferences between  his  workmen  which  he  had  never  suspected. 
The  application  of  trade  test  methods  cannot  help  but  reveal 
the  extraordinary  differences  in  the  rate  at  which  individuals 
learn  when  working  under  precisely  the  same  conditions.  The 
fact  that  from  time  to  time  the  workman  will  be  given  a  chance 
to  show  just  exactly  what  he  has  learned,  and  that  a  record  of 
this  will  be  kept  in  the  hands  of  those  who  control  his  promo- 
tion, will  serve  as  an  incentive  of  the  highest  order. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SOME  FURTHER  APPLICATIONS  OF  TRADE 
TEST  METHODS 

IN  addition  to  finding  their  place  in  the  employment  offices  of 
large  industrial  plants,  the  trade  tests  will  also  fill  a  keenly 
felt  want  in  general  employment  offices,  whether  private  or 
public.  A  very  significant  experiment  with  the  oral  tests  was 
performed  from  December,  1918,  to  March,  1919.  When  the 
armistice  was  signed,  and  there  was  no  longer  need  for  the  army 
tests  to  be  used  solely  in  the  army,  it  was  felt  that  the  results 
should  be  applied  to  other  government  offices  where  skilled 
workers  were  handled.  The  most  obvious  field  for  their  opera- 
tion lay  in  the  U.  S.  Employment  Service,  conducted  as  a  part 
of  the  Department  of  Labor.  Considering  that  at  that  time 
it  was  the  intention  to  use  the  U.  S.  Employment  Service  as 
one  of  the  important  agencies  which  was  to  relieve  the  pressure 
of  demobilization,  it  was  particularly  incumbent  upon  the  War 
Department  to  see  that  this  Service  was  given  every  facility. 
With  this  in  view  a  group  of  men  was  lent  by  the  Army  Trade 
Test  Division  to  the  Labor  Department.  The  function  of  this 
group  was  to  adapt  the  army  methods  to  the  needs  of  the  Em- 
ployment Service.  These  needs  were  so  essentially  similar  to 
those  of  the  army,  that  it  became  immediately  apparent,  from 
a  preliminary  try-out  in  several  cities,  that  the  oral  trade  test 
could  be  used  to  good  advantage.  It  was,  however,  felt  that  a 
complete  trial,  on  a  large  scale,  of  the  trade  tests  necessitated 
the  creation  of  a  special  type  of  employment  office. 

At  this  particular  time  there  was  also  a  demand  for  enlarging 
the  employment  service  in  New  York  City.  This  fact  enabled 

420 


APPLICATIONS    OF    METHODS  421 

a  specialized  employment  office  to  be  created,  which  would 
handle  only  skilled  labor.  As  no  such  office  existed  j  it  was 
necessary  not  only  to  procure  the  site,  but  also  to  devise  an 
office  plan  and  to  gather  the  necessary  personnel.  There  is  no 
need  to  describe  at  any  length  its  general  plan.  The  lay-out  of 
the  office  enabled  each  examiner  to  occupy  a  section;  within 
this  section  there  was  the  examiner's  desk  and  the  clerk's  desk, 
and  a  number  of  chairs.  There  were  in  all  five  examiners,  each 
examiner  handling  a  group  of  trades.  The  applicant  on  entrance 
was  given  a  rapid  interview  in  order  to  discover  the  trade  in 
which  he  claimed  to  have  skill.  When  this  was  ascertained,  he 
was  then  referred  to  that  section  where  the  trade  was  handled. 
Here  the  man  was  seated,  and  waited  until  he  was  called  by  the 
examiner  for  an  interview  at  the  desk. 

This  interview  was  absolutely  private.  The  men  who  were 
waiting  were  so  placed  that  they  could  not  hear  the  conversation. 
At  this  point  the  applicant  was  given  a  form  of  trade  test  spe- 
cialty adapted  to  the  uses  of  the  U.  S.  Employment  Service. 
There  was  felt  an  urgent  need  for  such  a  device  to  solve  one  of 
the  great  problems  of  the  Employment  Offices.  The  common 
criticism  which  was  made  of  the  system  of  reference  used  prior 
to  this  time  was  that  the  method  of  interviewing  enabled  a 
large  number  of  trade  bluffers  to  "get  by"  and  thus  secure 
references  to  industrial  plants.  From  the  standpoint  of  the 
skilled  mechanic  the  employment  office  must  operate  to  bring 
the  man  into  contact  with  the  job;  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
employer  it  must  serve  to  furnish  a  likely  group  of  men  from 
which  choice  may  be  made,  thereby  minimizing  the  wearisome 
and  wasteful  task  of  personally  investigating  the  qualifications 
of  men  who  have  not  had  the  necessary  training  for  the  work. 
It  was  in  the  latter  respect  that  the  mechanism  was  breaking 
down.  Many  employers  made  the  complaint  that  the  men  sent 


422  TRADE    TESTS 

from  the  employment  office  had  no  skill  in  the  trades  in  which 
they  had  claimed  knowledge  when  interviewed  in  the  employ- 
ment office.  The  lack  of  trade  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
interviewers  was  bound  to  create  this  situation.  In  order  to 
obviate  this  situation,  within  this  experimental  office  two 
methods  of  interview  were  worked  out: 

1.  The  standardized  trade  interview. 

2.  The  selective  trade  interview. 

The  results  which  had  been  previously  obtained  by  the  Army 
Trade  Test  Division  were  used  at  once  to  construct  the  stand- 
ardized trade  interview.  The  factor  of  coaching  and  speed 
made  it  necessary  to  alter  the  form  of  examination;  also  the 
rigidity  of  the  army  scheme  made  it  unsuitable  for  use  in  an 
employment  office.  The  final  form  of  standardized  interview 
consisted  of  ten  questions,  the  degree  of  difficulty  of  which  was 
known.  Any  six  of  the  questions  were  to  be  asked,  and  the 
individual  rated  upon  the  basis  of  his  score  on  these  six  ques- 
tions. The  questions  within  the  test  were  so  chosen  that  any 
six  which  were  selected  would  be  of  approximately  the  same 
degree  of  difficulty.  Whereas  in  the  army  four  levels  of  ability 
were  recognized,  in  the  Employment  Service  there  seemed  to 
be  no  useful  purpose  served  by  making  the  distinction  between 
the  journeyman  and  the  expert.  For  this  reason,  only  three 
levels  were  used: 

1.  The  nontradesman,  who  was  defined  as  a  man  with  no 

trade  experience. 

2.  The  helper,  a  man  who  has  had  experience  in  learning  the 

trade,  but  not  sufficient  to  make  him  a  tradesman. 
•    3.   Tradesman,  a  man  who  has  passed  through  the  helper  or 

apprentice  stage,  and  is  given  full  tradesman's  rating. 
The  examinations,  though  of  a  simpler  order,  and  not  so 
highly   differential,   were   so   essentially   similar   to   the   army 


APPLICATIONS    OF    METHODS  423 

trade  tests,  that  there  is  no  need  to  reproduce  any  of  them. 
With  extensive  trial  of  this  simplified  standard  test,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  definite  standards  of  achievement  prescribed 
for  novice,  helper  and  tradesman  made  the  use  of  this  type  of 
examination  rather  dangerous,  unless  examiners  could  be  well 
supervised  and  trained  in  the  methods  of  giving  the  oral  tests 
which  have  already  been  detailed.  The  object  of  this  experi- 
mental office  was  to  devise  a  method  which  could  be  applied  to 
all  offices  throughout  the  country.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
within  a  specialized  office  the  standardized  test,  with  prescribed 
levels  of  achievement,  is  by  far  the  most  satisfactory.  For 
general  uses,  however,  in  offices  where  it  was  impossible  to 
control  conditions,  another  type  of  interview  was  called  for, 
which  would  be  more  flexible  and,  therefore,  more  adaptable 
to  the  needs  of  the  general  run  of  employment  offices. 

To  meet  this  need  a  device  known  as  The  Selective  Trade 
Interview  was  constructed.  The  questions  comprising  a  Selec- 
tive Interview  were  compiled  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as 
was  described  in  the  army  procedure;  the  same  degree  of  care 
was  employed  to  see  that  they  were  typical  questions  and  that 
the  answers  were  complete.  They  were,  however,  not  stand- 
ardized in  any  formal  manner,  they  were  merely  administered 
to  a  sufficient  number  of  tradesmen  of  different  degrees  of  ability 
to  ensure:  (i)  that  they  represented  different  degrees  of  diffi- 
culty, (2)  that  they  were  genuine  trade  questions.  No  standards 
of  achievement  were  prescribed.  The  interview  furnished  the 
examiner  with  a  series  of  questions  carefully  worded,  with  all 
possible  answers  which  he  could  use,  in  any  manner,  to  discover 
the  suitability  of  the  applicant  for  the  position.  The  examiner 
merely  judged  by  the  ease  and  fluency  of  the  workman  whether 
he  was  a  tradesman,  helper,  or  novice.  Jn  general  the  examina- 
tion consisted  of  ten  questions,  any  six  of  which  might  be  used. 


424  TRADE    TESTS 

PAPER  HANGER 

TRADE   INTERVIEW    QUESTIONS 

Ask  at  least  six  questions;  more  if  necessary  to  judge  accurately 
the  candidate's  ability.  Score  only  the  results  of  the  six  questions 
you  ask  first.  Vary  as  much  as  possible  your  selection  of  the  first 
six  questions. 

1.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  paste  or  glue  you  put  on  a  plastered 

wall  before  papering? 
A.    Size  (sizing). 

2.  Q.   What  other  brush  does  a  paper  hanger  use  besides  a  pasting 

brush? 
A.    Smoothing. 

3.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  muslin  covering  which  is  put  on  a  board 

partition  before  sizing? 
A.    Lining. 

4.  Q.   What  kind  of  joint  is  generally  used  in  hanging  heavy  oat- 

meal or  embossed  paper? 
A.    Butt. 

5.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  waste  edge  which  is  cut  off  in  making  a 

butt-edge  joint? 
A.    Selvage  (trim). 

6.  Q.   What  do  you  put  into  sizing  to  kill  the  gloss  when  papering 

over  a  painted  wall? 
A.    Potash  (soda)  (pearl  ash)  (ash). 

7.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  joint  where  only  one  selvage  edge  is 

trimmed  off? 
A.    Lap  (slap- work). 

8.  Q.   What  do  you  call  a  joint  where  one  edge  and  all  but  about 

f-inch  of  the  other  edge  is  trimmed  off? 
A.    Wire  (hair-stripe). 


APPLICATIONS    OF    METHODS  425 

9.    Q.    What  do  you  call  the  space  on  the  wall  between    he  chair- 
rail  and  baseboard? 
A.    Dado. 

10.    Q.   What  is  put  into  paste  to  make  it  stick  better  when  you  hang 

lincrusta  or  heavy  paper? 
A.    Molasses  (turpentine),  (venetian),  (turps). 


426  TRADE    TESTS 

GLAZIER 
TRADE   INTERVIEW    QUESTIONS 

Ask  at  least  six  questions;  more  if  necessary  to  judge  accurately 
the  candidate's  ability.  Score  only  the  results  of  the  six  questions 
you  ask  first.  Vary  as  much  as  possible  your  selection  of  the  first 
six  questions. 

1.  Q.   What  liquid  do  you  generally  use  on  the  drill  point  when 

drilling  through  glass? 
A.    Turpentine  (kerosene),  (coal-oil). 

2.  Q.   What  tool  do  you  use  to  remove  the  sharp  edge  from  glass? 
A.    Roller. 

3.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  small  triangular  pieces  of  metal  that 

hold-in  the  glass  when  puttying? 
A.    Points. 

4.  Q.   What  do  you  do  to  a  wooden  sash  to  make  the  putty  stick  in 

longer? 

A.    Paint  (prime),  (oil). 

6.    Q.   What  common  kind  of  pu  ty  is  there  besides  linseed-putty? 
A.    White-lead. 

6.  Q.   What  do  you  generally  use  to  drive  in  points  on  a  window 

which  is  hi  place? 
A.    Chisel. 

7.  Q.   What  do  you  call  puttying  the  sash  before  putting  in  the 

glass? 
A.    Bedding  (back-puttying). 

8.  Q.   What  do  you  call  the  narrow  strips  of  wood  used  to  hold 

plate-glass  hi? 
A.    Beading  (molding). 

9.  Q.   What  is  placed  hi  skylight  glass  to  make  it  fireproof? 

A.    Wire. 

10.    Q.   What  kind  of  glass,  besides  wired,  is  used  in  skylights? 
A.    Ribbed. 


APPLICATIONS   OF    METHODS  427 

While  this  method  is  by  no  means  as  complete  as  the  stand- 
ardized, calibrated  form  of  examination,  it  has  the  great  advan- 
tage that  it  can  be  used  by  any  examiner  even  though  he  has 
not  been  trained  in  the  technique  of  administering  the  oral  tests. 
What  is  more,  a  series  of  adequate  questions  can  be  prepared 
very  rapidly.  This  type  of  exam  nation  certainly  serves  to 
eliminate  the  man  who  is  attempting  to  deceive  and  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  enables  the  examiner,  with  the  help  of  the 
general  interview  concerning  nature  of  previous  work,  length  of 
experience,  etc.,  to  decide  whether  the  applicant  is  a  helper  or 
tradesman.  It  should,  however,  only  be  used  when  for  any  of 
the  reasons  above  mentioned  the  other  more  accurate  forms  of 
calibrated  tests  are  impractical. 

This  experiment  was  such  a  success  and  resulted  in  so  much 
more  accuracy  in  the  placement  of  men,  that  it  was  decided  to 
extend  these  methods  to  a  number  of  representative  offices 
throughout  the  country.  This  work  was  already  under  way 
when  the  curtailment  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service, 
as  a  result  of  the  lack  of  appropriation  by  Congress,  brought 
this  interesting  experiment  to  an  end.  The  abandonment  of 
the  idea  did  not  take  place,  however,  before  the  trade  test 
methods  had  demonstrated  their  efficiency  and  applicability  to 
the  problem  of  a  large  employment  office,  working  under  peace 
conditions. 

Trade  test  methods  have  also  been  effectively  employed  in 
examinations  given  for  Civil  Service  positions.  The  conditions 
under  which  the  Civil  Service  appointments  are  made  make 
some  form  of  objective  rating  extremely  desirable.  The  exami- 
nations for  a  large  number  of  positions  must  be  conducted  in 
various  places  by  a  single  examiner.  Absolute  freedom  from 
any  suspicion  of  favoritism  or  "pull"  is  a  necessity.  Slight 
adaptations  of  the  trade  test  methods  will  provide  a  ready 


428  TRADE    TESTS 

means  for  securing  a  type  of  examination  which  will  meet  these 
requirements.  In  fact  at  the  present  time  the  Civil  Service 
Commission  of  Ohio  is  constructing  examinations  directly  based 
upon  trade  test  ideas. 

It  is  also  true  that  in  certain  trades,  even  fairly  large  plants 
require  only  one  or  at  the  most  two  skilled  tradesmen.  Thus 
for  example  a  single  electrician  or  power-house  man  may  be 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  that  particular  kind  of  work 
within  the  plant.  When  hiring  for  these  jobs  there  is  no  chance 
for  reference  to  a  foreman,  there  is  no  chance  of  comparison 
with  other  types  of  workmen.  Under  these  conditions  this  form 
of  trade  test,  devised  in  plants  where  large  numbers  of  such 
workmen  are  handled,  would  be  of  the  greatest  service  in  the 
correct  selection  of  an  applicant. 

A  further  fact  of  interest  may  be  cited,  as  showing  the  ad- 
vantages which  may  be  derived  from  even  a  limited  use  of  trade 
tests.  Supposing  that  in  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  trades 
it  is  feasible  to  construct  trade  tests  for  use  in  the  employment 
office,  the  introduction  of  tests  in  these  few  trades  will  alter  the 
attitude  of  men  who  are  applying  for  openings  in  those  trades 
for  which  no  tests  have  been  constructed.  Practical  experi- 
ence within  a  large  employment  office  has  definitely  proved  that 
knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  applicant  that  some  form  of  trade 
interview  may  possibly  be  given  is  sufficient  to  eliminate  the 
greater  number  of  bluffers.  The  presence  of  a  few  good  trade 
tests  gives  a  tone  to  an  office  which  is  noticeably  lacking  under 
present  conditions,  where  not  only  the  employment  officials  but 
also  the  tradesmen  themselves  realize  how  slip-shod  are  the 
methods  of  judging  trade  skill. 

While  it  is  true  that  these  standardized  methods  of  selecting 
personnel  have  passed,  by  one  stride,  out  of  the  realms  of  theory, 
it  would  not  be  wise  to  make  claims  which  at  this  time  would 


APPLICATIONS    OF    METHODS  429 

appear  extravagant.  Industry  is  in  a  position  to  take  advantage 
of  the  result  of  a  huge  experiment,  but  these  benefits  will  be 
reaped  more  by  continued  experiment  with  the  general  methods, 
than  by  any  immediate  application  of  present  devices.  The 
great  contribution  of  the  Army  Trade  Test  Division  is  found  in 
its  rigid  adherence,  at  every  step,  to  the  strictest  scientific  prin- 
ciples. It  has  shown  that  the  principles  of  measurement,  devised 
in  other  fields,  can  be  applied  with  equal  advantage  to  the  field 
of  selection  and  training  in  industry.  A  great  step  has  been 
made,  but  progress  will  only  be  secured  by  following  the  leads 
which  have  been  given.  There  is  always  danger  that  when  new 
laboratory  ideas  are  applied,  the  desire  for  immediate  results 
in  the  practical  field  will  lead  to  an  attempt  to  eliminate  some 
of  the  less  showy  but  absolutely  necessary  scientific  steps  upon 
which  the  success  of  the  whole  process  is  dependent.  If  industry 
will  use  the  experimental  method,  the  standardized  methods 
which  have  been  described  cannot  fail;  if,  however,  it  hastily 
constructs  measuring  devices,  without  regard  to  the  funda- 
mental foundation  upon  which  such  measurements  depend, 
failure  will  be  certain.  It  will  not  be  true,  as  may  be  claimed, 
that  the  trade  test  is  "too  theoretical,"  but  that  those' who 
attempt  to  use  it  are  "too  practical." 

There  is,  however,  one  goal  towards  which  the  ideas  and 
methods  of  the  trade  test  have  at  least  pointed  the  way.  The 
trade  test  as  employed  in  the  various  camps  of  the  army  estab- 
lished uniform  standards  of  achievement,  standards  of  achieve- 
ment which  did  not  vary  with  place,  time,  or  examiner.  If  as  a 
result  of  the  further  application  of  these  methods,  upon  an 
infinitely  wider  scale,  unchanging  standards  which  will  be  nation- 
wide can  be  established,  the  results  to  be  obtained  from  such 
standardization  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  If  within  each 
trade  and  occupation  there  was  a  common  language  and  a 


430  TRADE    TESTS 

common  quantitative  basis  for  measurement,  a  great  advance 
could  be  made.  The  present  chaos  of  trade  standards  created 
at  will,  by  this  union,  or  by  that  union,  cannot  long  be  tolerated. 
Trade  standing  must  finally  be  determined,  not  by  number  of 
years  of  training,  but  by  the  absolute  amount  of  knowledge 
and  skill  possessed  by  the  tradesman.  Why  should  a  learner  be 
made  to  serve  a  five-year  apprenticeship,  when  a  six  months' 
course,  scientifically  planned,  and  well  administered,  can  pro- 
duce a  better  workman  than  five  years  of  haphazard  experi- 
ence? In  the  realms  of  physical  measurement  the  necessity  for 
never  changing  standards  is  accepted.  No  elaborate  commer- 
cial or  scientific  work  could  be  done  in  the  absence  of  the  Bureau 
of  Standards.  Is  it  too  much  to  expect  that  the  application  of 
scientific  measurement  in  the  field  of  human  knowledge  and 
human  skill  will  demand  the  creation  of  a  similar  institution? 


SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  The  Personnel  System  of  the  U.  S.  Army.    Published  by  War 

Department,  Adjutant  General's  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 
(History  and  development  of  the  army  personnel  system) 

2.  Army  Trade  Tests.    W.  T.  Bawden.    Bureau  of  Education,  In- 

dustrial Education  Circular  No.  4.    April,  1919. 
(Report  of  Conference) 

3.  Trade  Specifications  and  Index  of  Professions  and  Trades  in  the 

Army.    War  Department  Document  No.  774,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

4.  Description  of  Occupations.    A  series  of  bulletins  published  by 

the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.    U.  S.  Department  of  Labor. 
Washington,  D.  C. 

5.  Personnel  Management.     J.  J.  Coss  and  L.  Outhwaite.     War 

Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(Topical  outline  and  bibliography  of  most  phases  of  personnel  work) 

6.  Publications  of  the  Committee  on  Education  and  Special  Training. 

War  Department,  Washington,  D.  C. 
(Instruction  Manuals) 

7.  The  Extension  of  Selective  Tests  to  Industry.      By  B.  Ruml. 

Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Sciences,  Vol.  81,  1919. 

(Short  statement  of  trade  test  method) 

8.  Measuring  a   Workman's   Skill.     W.   V.   Bingham.     National 

Society  for  Vocational  Education,  Bulletin  No.  30. 
(A  short  statement  of  the  use  of  trade  tests) 

9.  A  Written  Trade  Test.    J.  Crosby  Chapman  and  H.  A.  Toops. 

(Multiple  Choice  Method) 
Journal  of  Applied  Psychology,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  4,  1919. 

(An  account  of  a  written  group  form  of  examination) 

10.  Trade  Test  Enters  Industry.     J.  Crosby  Chapman.     Finance 
and  Industry,  Vol.  XXXLX,  No.  10. 
(A  short  statement  of  trade  test  method) 
431 


INDEX 


Ability,  definition  of,  12;  sampling  of, 
80 

Aids  for  interviewers,  demerits  of  sys- 
tem, 51,  53;  general  directions,  35; 
tests  reproduced:  auto  repairer,  38; 
bricklayer,  46;  carpenter,  348;  in- 
side wireman,  50;  machinist,  general, 
36;  motion  picture  operator,  40; 
sheetmetal  worker,  48;  surveyor,  42; 
tire  repairer,  44 

Apprenticeship,  period  of,  56,  430 

Army  requirements  for  testing  devices, 
8 

Army  requisitions,  6,  355 

Army  trade  names,  caution,  61 

Attitude  of  tradesman,  175 

Basic    human    qualities,    difficulty    in 

measurement  of,  368 
Bluffing,  6,  343,  427;   in  commerce,  33 
British  trade  test  method,  264,  410 

Civil  Service,  trade  tests  in,  427 

Coaching,  333,  384;  method  of  elimi- 
nation, 379;  use  of  supplementary 
questions,  113 

Committee  on  Classification  of  Per- 
sonnel, 13 

Consultants,  413  ••  , 

Differentiating  power  of  test,  18;  de- 
fined, 56;  method  of  testing,  57,  59, 
97 

Differentiation  in  industry,  380 

Educational  department,  problems  of, 
387. 


Educational  measurements,  application 
to  trade  test,  17 

Efficiency  expert,  413 

Employment  office,  13;  centralized, 
362;  lack  of  skilled  examiners,  32; 
methods  of  interview,  364;  weak- 
nesses of,  421;  use  of  clerical  assist- 
ance, 15 

Examination,  by  experts,  7,  364 

Examiner,  no  trade  knowledge  needed 
by,  1 6,  30 

Follow  up  questions,  91 
Foreman,  method    of   handling  appli- 
cants, 13,  364 

Hiring  out  of  town,  34 

Industrial  methods,  adaptation  of,  16 
Industrial  problem,  similarity  to  army 

problem,  361 

Industry,  achievements  in,  380;    cen- 
tralized  employment  office  in,  364; 
existing  methods  in,  13;  exploitation 
of,  368;    installation  of  trade  tests 
in,  413;  place  of  tests  in,  376 
Information,  relation  to  skill,  23,  24 
Intelligence    test,    distinguished    from 

trade  test,  371 

Interview,  aids  for,  35;  methods  in 
industry,  7,  364;  private  interview 
necessary,  415 

Job  analysis,  361,  367,  387;  method  of, 

369 

Job  sheets,  389;  advantages  of  method, 
409;  directions  for,  408;  introduction 


433 


434 


INDEX 


Job  sheets,  continued  — 

to,  397;  samples  reproduced  —  divid- 
ing head,  404;  file,  398;  forging  cold 
chisel,  401;  lathe,  402;  use  of,  410 

Labor  turnover,  4,  363 
Language  difficulty,  189,  262,  333 

Measuring  instruments,  skepticism  with 

regard  to,  n 
Motor-mindedness,  24 
Multi-answer  questions,  29,  30,  52,  54 
Multi-choice  method,  337 

Objective  ratings,  9;   of  trade  test,  19 

Objective  scale,  definition,  9;  for  school 
subjects,  17 

Occupations,  in  army,  7,  353,  355; 
specialized  duties  in  army,  370 

Occupational  analysis,  method  of,  367, 
369 

Occupational  history,  358 

Occupational  needs,  tables  of,  354,  356 

Occupational  specialists,  354 

Oral  question,  assumption  underlying, 
23;  compilation  of,  83,  87;  faults  of, 
86;  elimination  of,  93;  key  word,  94; 
nature  of,  27;  multi-answer  vs.  single 
answer,  29,  30,  52,  54;  relation  of  in- 
formation to  skill,  23;  scoring  of,  94; 
selection  of,  31;  standardized  follow- 
up  question  for,  91;  statistical  treat- 
ment of,  96;  testing  of,  90,  92,  94; 
types  of,  27,  99;  what  it  measures,  24 

Oral  trade  test,  alternative  method  of 
construction,  176;  assembly  of,  107; 
calibration  of,  103;  differentiating 
power  of,  55;  genesis  of,  16;  improve- 
ment in,  348;  instructions  for  giving, 
1 66;  scope  of,  179;  scoring  of,  174; 
tests  reproduced  —  acetylene  cutter, 
163;  automatic  screw  machine,  134; 
auto  repairer,  72;  brass  melter,  131; 
bricklayer,  109;  butcher,  144;  cable- 
man,  125;  cabinet  maker,  69;  car- 


penter, 350;  compositor,  150;  cook 
(selected  questions),  181;  cupola 
tender,  128;  die-sinker,  138;  drop- 
forger,  141;  electrician,  D.C.,  122; 
hammersmith,  66;  ironworker  erec- 
tor, 119;  painter,  63;  pipe-fitter  (low 
pressure),  112;  plumber,  116;  radio 
operator,  159;  surveyor,  53;  tailor, 
156;  telephone  repairer,  76;  type- 
writer repairer,  147;  use  of,  376 

Performance  trade  test,  administering, 
279;  advantages  of,  261;  advan- 
tages for  foreigners,  262;  calibration 
of,  276;  construction  of,  272;  de- 
mands of,  260;  divisions  of,  278; 
drawbacks  of,  in  industry,  383 ;  equip- 
ment for,  280;  feasibility  of,  272; 
final  formulation  of,  272;  final  test- 
ing of,  276;  genesis  of,  13;  instruc- 
tions to  candidate,  280;  instructions 
to  examiner,  278;  kinds  of,  265; 
meaning  of,  259;  picture  of,  270; 
place  of,  268;  practicality  of,  384; 
preliminary  testing  of,  274;  relation 
to  industrial  method,  259;  scoring, 
281;  selection  of,  268;  specifications 
of,  278;  stages  of,  272;  standardized 
vs.  unstandardized,  382;  tests  repro- 
duced:—  bench-hand,  301;  black- 
smith, 312;  interior  wireman,  295; 
lathe  operator,  308;  pattern-maker, 
282;  sheet-metal  worker,  292;  steam- 
fitter,  288;  stenographer,  322;  truck- 
driver,  325;  typist,  319;  use  of,  382; 
weighting,  277 

Personnel,  army  problem,  5;  organiza- 
tion in  industry,  414;  research  vs. 
administrative  groups,  415;  specifi- 
cations, 354,  356 

Picture  trade  test,  advantages  of,  188, 
193;  construction  of,  190,  192;  diffi- 
culties of,  191;  instructions  for,  192; 
method,  183;  reasons  for,  183;  prac- 
ticality of,  187;  scoring  of,  193; 


INDEX 


435 


source  of,  189;  tests  reproduced: 
battery  expert,  212;  boilermaker, 
236;  carpenter,  198;  cobbler,  243; 
gas  welder,  249;  generator  tender, 
203;  horse-shoer,  228;  lathe  opera- 
tor, 220;  use  of,  376 
Progress  of  employee,  measurement  of, 


Qualification  card,  360 

Questions,    avoiding    theoretical,    191; 

compilation  of,  87;  formal,  15;  single 

answer,  29,  30,  52,  54;  specialized  vs. 

non-specialized,  377;  supplementary, 

379 

Ratings,  in  army,  56;    lack  of  stand- 
ardized, 7;   subjective,  9 

Sampling  of  ability,  random,  80 

Scientific  method,  27,  429 

Scoring,  60 

Selective  trade  interview,  423;    inter- 

views reproduced  :  paper-hanger,  424; 

glazier,  426;   single-answer  question, 

29,  30,  52,  54 
Skill  prediction  test,  distinguished  from 

trade  test,  372 

Skill,  relation  to  information,  23,  24 
Skilled    tradesman,    disadvantages    of 

use    as    interviewer,     14;      present 

method  of  securing  information  con- 

cerning, 13 

Toops,  338 

Trade  ability,  definition  of,  12;   grada- 
tions in,  84;    mistake  in  estimating, 
6;  need  for  more  exact  knowledge  of, 
3,  4;  sampling  of,  263    , 
Trade,  change  in,  362;  definition  of,  n 
Trade  information,  compilation  of,  273 
Trade  interview  methods,  422 


Trade  names  in  army,  61 
Trade  qualification  record,  6,  360 
Tradesman,  attitude  of,    175;    motor- 
minded,  24 

Trade  specifications,  356,  357 
Trade  status,  93,  422;  definition  of,  56; 

interpretation  of,  374 
Trade  test,  criteria,  18;  decision  from, 
10;  definition  of,  8;  installation  of, 
413,  417;  method  in  U.  S.  Employ- 
ment Service,  420;  not  an  intelli- 
gence test,  371;  not  for  skill  predic- 
tion, 372;  place  in  general  employ- 
ment scheme,  353;  specialized  vs. 
non- specialized  questions,  377;  use 
of,  374,  426,  347,  376,  428;  selection 
of  men  for,  93;  standardization  of, 
58;  stages  in  construction  of,  83; 
types  of,  19 

Training  of  employees,  386;  formal  vs. 
informal  training,  387;  haphazard 
instruction,  394;  job  sheets  listed, 
389;  measurements  of  results,  407; 
oral  test  applied,  388;  performance 
method  applied,  394;  plan  for,  388; 
rate  of,  417;  trade  test  methods 
applied,  386;  technical,  26;  weakness 
of  present  methods,  392 

U.  S.  Employment  Service,  420,  427; 
experimental  office  of,  420;  forms  of 
interview  in  office  of,  422 

War  Department,  Committee  on  Edu- 
cation and  Special  Training,  389 

Written  group  trade  test,  advantages 
of,  337;  assembly  of,  338;  differen- 
tiation by,  343;  graphs  in,  342; 
method  of,  337;  test  reproduced:  — 
bricklayer,  338;  results  of,  341; 
scores  in,  341;  subjects  in,  340 


7 


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